1. Introduction to Psychology and Methods of Research
Chapter One
Introduction to Psychology and Methods of Research
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2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

3.
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4. Did You Know That…
One of the founders of modern psychology was such a poor student that he was actually left back a grade in school?
A movement that once dominated psychology believed that psychologists should turn away from the study of the mind?
The school of psychology originated by Sigmund Freud holds that we are generally unaware of our underlying motives?
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5. Did You Know That… (cont.)
A major school of psychology was inspired by the view from a train?
A student successfully completed all Ph.D. requirements at Johns Hopkins University but was refused a doctorate because she was a woman?
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6. Did You Know That… (cont.)
A sample of 1,500 people may better represent the American population than a sample of 100,000?
You can obtain listings and abstracts of articles from major psychology journals by using your home computer (and much of it is free of charge)?
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7. Foundations of Modern Psychology
Module 1.1
Foundations of Modern Psychology

8. Module 1.1 Preview Questions
What is psychology?
What are the origins of psychology?
What are the major early schools of psychology?
What are the major contemporary perspectives in psychology?
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9. What Is Psychology? The science of behavior and mental processes.
What do we mean by behavior and mental processes
Behavior- observable actions of a person or animal. Methods of observation include surveys and experiments.
Mind- sensations, memories, motives,emotions, thoughts and other subjective phenomena particular to an individual or animal.
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10. Why is psychology considered a science?
Psychology uses a systematic collection and observation of data to answer questions about the mind and the behavior and how they interact.
Psychologists seek to describe , predict and explain behavior and the mental processes underlying behavior.
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11. Origins of Psychology Greek roots Ancient Greek philosophers
Psyche “mind”
Logos “study” or “knowledge”
Ancient Greek philosophers
Socrates (ca B.C.): Know thyself.
Plato (ca B.C.): Our senses are not to be trusted.
Aristotle (ca B.C.): Knowledge through careful observation.
Confucius (ca B.C.): We are inherently good, not evil.
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12. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) German scientist.
Established first psychology laboratory in 1879.
Psychology transitions from philosophy to science.
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13. History of Psychology (Brief!): Beginnings
Wilhelm Wundt: “Father” of Psychology
1879: Set up first lab to study conscious experience
Introspection: Looking inward (i.e., examining and reporting your thoughts, feelings, etc.)
Experimental Self-Observation: Incorporates both introspection and objective measurement; Wundt’s approach
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14. Wilhelm Wundt (cont.) Interested in people’s mental experiences.
Used method of introspection.
Wanted to develop model of conscious experience by breaking it down into its component parts.
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15. History of Psychology: “Old schools”
1) Structuralism- focus on introspection
“Looking Inside”: sensation &s perception
Wundt’s ideas brought to the U.S. by Tichener and renamed Structuralism
Structuralists often disagreed, and no way to prove who was correct!
Structuralists: Introspection was a poor way to answer many questions
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16. Helping behavior Bystander phenomenon
The more people witness an emergency, the less likely it is that anyone will help
Presence of others is cause of apathy among witnesses
Interpretations
Generalized knowledge
Nobody helps so it is no emergency
Why me?

17. Edward Titchner ( )
Brought Wundt’s teachings and methods to U.S.
School of psychology known as structuralism.
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18. G. Stanley Hall ( )
First American to work in Wundt’s laboratory.
Established first psychological laboratory in U.S. in 1883.
Founded American Psychological Association in 1892.
Made important contributions to child psychology.
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19. William James (1842-1910) 2) Functionalism-Founded by William James.
Shift focus from introspection to the functions of behavior.
Why we do what we do.
Belief:
Experienxce is fluid and continious like a “stream of consciousness.”
Addresses ways in which expeirence permits us to functon more efficiently in our new env.
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20. John Watson (1878-1958) 3) Behaviorism-Founded by Watson behaviorism.
Since can’t observe mental processes, psychology should become a science of behavior only.
Environment molds behavior.
By 1920s, behaviorism becomes dominant force in American psychology.
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21. B. F. Skinner ( )
Studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments.
Principles of learning apply to animals and humans alike.
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22. 4) Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
Train ride led to founding of Gestalt psychology.
How does brain organize and structures perceptions of world?
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23. Figure 1.2: What is This?
Gestalt maxim: “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”
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24. Fig. 1.2 The design you see here is entirely made up of broken circles. However, as the Gestalt psychologists discovered, our perceptions have a powerful tendency to form meaningful patterns. Because of this tendency, you will probably see a triangle in this design, even though it is only an illusion. Your whole perceptual experience exceeds the sum of its parts.
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25. 5) Psychodynamics (1856-1939) Sigmund Freud -Austrian physician.
Focused on the unconscious mind.
Emphasized importance of early childhood experiences.
Developed form of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis.
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26. Homework#2 : Read all pages on Contemporary Psychology &pgs 9-13 in text
Write a 1-2 sentence definition of each and complete the worksheet
Behavioral Perspective
Psychodynamic Perspective
Humanistic Perspective
Physiological Perspective
Cognitive Perspective
Sociocultural Perspective
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27. Figure 1.3: Ethnic/Racial Breakdown of U.S. Population in 2000
Source: (1994, March). Current Population Reports, Series, Household and Family
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28. Figure 1.4: Projected Racial Breakdown of U.S. Population in 2050
Source: (1994, March). Current Population Reports, Series, Household and Family
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29. We’re done with chapter 1!!!! . How about a quiz?
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30. Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do
Module 1.2
Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do
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31. Hw#1 Fields of psychology
1. Explain the difference between pure and applied research.
2. Explain the differences among many types of psychologists involved in clinical services , research and industry.
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32. Module 1.2 Preview Questions
What are the various specialties in psychology?
What changes have occurred in the ethnic and gender characteristics of psychologists over time?
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33. Psychological Research
Basic(Pure) Research: Focus is on acquiring knowledge, even if no practical application.
Applied Research: Focus is on finding solutions to specific problems.
Ex. Effect of TV on children’s social skills
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34. Figure 1.5: Psychologists’ Areas of Specialization
Source: Psychological Association (1998) APA Directory Survey: Selected
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35. Figure 1.6: Where Psychologists Work
Source: Psychological Association (1998) APA Directory Survey: Selected
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36. Specialty Areas Experimental psychology Clinical psychology
Counseling psychology
School psychology
Educational psychology
Developmental psychology
Personality psychology
Social psychology
Environmental psychology
Industrial/Organizational psychology
Health psychology
Consumer psychology
Neuropsychology
Geropsychology
Forensic psychology
Sports psychology
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37. Women in Early Psychology
Mary Whiton Calkins ( )
Margaret Floy Washburn ( )
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38. African Americans in Early Psychology
Gilbert Haven Jones ( )
Kenneth Clark (b. 1914) Mamie Clark ( )
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39. Figure 1.7: Ethnicity of Ph.D. Psychologists
Source: National Science Foundation
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40. Figure 1.8: Women Ph.D. Recipients in Psychology
Source: American Psychological Association, Research Office
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41. Research Methods in Psychology
Module 1.3
Research Methods in Psychology
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42. Module 1.3 Preview Questions
What are the major objectives of science?
What is the scientific method, and what are its four general steps?
What are the major research methods psychologists use?
What ethical guidelines must psychologists follow in their research?
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43. Objectives of Science Description Explanation Prediction Control
Observations vs. inferences
Explanation
Purpose of theories
Prediction
Control
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44. Figure 1.9: General Steps in the Scientific Method
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45. Case Study Method In-depth study of one or more individuals.
Anecdotes as casual case studies.
Limitations of case study method.
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46. Survey Method Information gathered from targeted groups of people.
Structured interviews
Questionnaires
Goal: generalize from sample to population
Importance of random sampling
Problems
Social desirability bias
Volunteer bias
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47. Naturalistic Observation
Direct observation of behavior in natural environment.
Problems
Observer biases
Possible unintended consequences
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48. Correlational Method
Used to examine the relationship between two variables.
Correlation coefficient as a statistical measure of association
Positive vs. negative correlations
Limitation: Correlation is not causation.
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49. Benefits of the Correlational Method
Offers clues to underlying causes.
Can identify groups at high risk for physical or behavioral problems.
Increases understanding of relationships between variables or events.
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50. Experimental Method
Allows for investigation of cause-and-effect relationships.
Independent Variables: Factors that are manipulated in an experiment.
Dependent Variables: Outcome variables believed to be dependent on independent variable.
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51. Experimental Method Participants Random Assignment
Independent variable: control group
Independent variable: experimental group
Measure dependent variable: Is there a difference?
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52. Experimental Method Controlling for placebo effects
Controlling for expectancy effects
Single-blind and double-blind procedures
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53. Ethical Principles in Psychological Research
Purposes:
Promote individual dignity.
Protect human welfare.
Preserve scientific integrity.
Role of ethics review committees
Role of informed consent
Importance of confidentiality
Ethical guidelines for animal research
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54. Application: Becoming a Critical Thinker
Module 1.4
Application: Becoming a Critical Thinker
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55. Module 1.4 Preview Question
What are the key features of critical thinking?
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56. Features of Critical Thinking
Question everything.
Clarify what you mean.
Avoid oversimplifying.
Avoid overgeneralizing.
Don’t confuse correlation with causation.
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57. Features of Critical Thinking (cont’d)
Consider assumptions.
Examine sources.
Question evidence.
Consider alternative explanations.
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