1. Aim: Why did the Scientific Revolution Begin in Europe?
Mr. O’Malley
Edited by Mr. Stonehill
AP World History III
Townsend Harris High School

2. I. The First Big Changes: Culture and Commerce
REVIEW: Outline Notes: Renaissance, Reformation, Commercial Revolution, Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment, Influence of Enlightenment Ideas on Government
I. The First Big Changes: Culture and Commerce
A. The Italian Renaissance ) Begins 14th, 15th centuries in N. Italy (Florence, Venice)
2) Italy: a) Urbanized
b) Merchant class
c) Political rivalry
3) Petrarch, Boccaccio a) Use Italian
b) Secular topics
4) Painting a) Use of perspective
b) Shadow, distance
c) Focus on humans
5) Michelangelo Buonarotti
6) Leonardo da Vinci ) Niccolo Machiavelli ) Humanism –Definition a) Looking back to classical past
b) Study of Greek and Latin texts – Philology, Textual Criticism

3. REVIEW: B. The Renaissance Moves Northward
1) By 1500, impetus moves north 2) Spain, France, Low Countries (Belgium, Netherlands), England, Germany
3) Then to E. Europe – Bohemia, Poland, Lithuania
4) More concerned with religious matters
a) Erasmus (Dutch)
b) St. Thomas More (English)
c) Shakespeare (English)
d) Cervantes (Spanish)
C. Changes in Technology and Family
1) Technology: printing press
2) Family
a) later marriage age common
b) nuclear family common

4. Western Europe in the Renaissance and Reformation

5. REVIEW: D. The Protestant and Catholic Reformations
1) 1517: Martin Luther's challenge
a) Attacks church institutions – Papacy, Mass, Sacraments
b) Bible the only authority (Sola Scriptura)
c) Vernacular translations 2) Protestant movement used for political gain
a) German opposition to the papacy – Early Nationalism
b) Rulers seize church lands - Gain economic power, more centralized rule
3) Anglicanism: Henry VIII
a) Father, Henry VII, founded Tudor dynasty, ending Wars of the Roses
b) Henry lacked a male heir with his wife, Catherine of Aragon
c) Refused an annulment from Pope Clement VII
d) Establishes Anglican church: son Edward, Mary, then Elizabeth
4) John Calvin
a) founded Calvinism – Five Points (TULIP)
b) Predestination of the elect and the damned
c) Spread to parts of France, Switzerland, Netherlands and Scotland
5) Catholic Reformation
a) Council of Trent: Ended clerical abuses
b) Renewal of Religious Orders: St. Teresa of Avila–Reformed Carmelites c) Creation of new Religious Orders: St. Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits
i) Missionaries: To Americas, Mughal India, China, Ethiopia, Japan
ii) Education: High Schools & Universities – e.g., Fordham

6. REVIEW: E. The End of Christian Unity in the West 1) Religious Wars
a) In France
i) Calvinists v. Catholics: St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
ii) 1598, Edict of Nantes - Promises Protestants’ toleration
b) 30 Years War ( )
i) Devastating to Germany
ii) Netherlands independent
c) Literacy increases
F. The Commercial Revolution 1) Inflation, 16th century
2) Cause: Increased supply of gold & silver from New World
3) Demand (for goods) outstrips supply (of goods)
G. Social Protest 1) Proletariat develops
2) Attitudes towards poor change
3) Protests
4) Witchcraft hysteria

7. REVIEW: Renaissance Effects: Increase in Literate Middle Class
Rise of Individualism
Increased Historical Awareness
Questioning of the Status Quo (Political, Religious, Social – not very effective)
Change in Sense of Humor: From Slapstick to Intellectual Jokes –
Boccaccio, Decamerone
Erasmus, Colloquies, Praise of Folly,
Thomas More, Utopia,
Rabelais, Gargantua and Pantagruel
Causes:
Crusades: Taste for Luxury Goods, Profits from Trade, Mansa Musa of Mali
Economic: Rise of Middle Class (Merchants, Bourgeoisie)
Political: Rivalry Among Italian City-States – Rise of Patronage, (Architects, Artists, Mercenary Armies (Condottieri))
Social: Influence of Other Cultures, Rediscovery and Printing of Greek and Latin Manuscripts
Technological: Invention and Spread of Printing Press
Demographic/Biological: Black Death – Shook up Institutions, Rise in Wages, Consolidation of Property, Peasant Rebellions

8. REVIEW: Reformation Short-term Effects:
Peasants Revolt (Luther calls on German Princes to crush Peasants’ Rebellion)
Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican and other Protestant churches founded
Holy Roman emperor weakened (Charles V)
Long-term effects:
Religious Divisions: Catholic Europe and Protestant Europe (Anglican, Calvinist, Lutheran)
Religious wars break out in Europe for more than 100 years: ends in Peace of Westphalia (1648)
Political Divisions: Germany divided into Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinist states
Catholic Reformation: Council of Trent, end of Indulgence Abuses, new Religious orders
Long-term Causes:
Church Corruption (simony, nepotism, worldliness)
Humanist desire for simpler religion
Renaissance: Questioning of institutions (pol., rel., social)
Rise of Strong Monarchs/Nation-States: Resent power of the Church; increased their power by seizing Church lands and property
Short-Term Causes:
Abuse of Indulgences in Germany
Martin Luther writes 95 Theses
Luther translates Bible into German
Printing press spreads new ideas
Reformers (Luther, Calvin, Cranmer) call for change

9. Scientific Revolution
Causes:
1) Rise of Universities
2) Development of non-Aristotelian views of Physics:
Jean Buridan
Nicole Oresme
Effects:
3) Renaissance Questioning of Authority and Received Opinions 4) Discovery of New World (Things are not what they seem; world is a different place than Greek and Roman thinkers thought
5) Spread of Printing
6) New Inventions: Telescope, Microscope, Perpective Box

10. The Scientific Revolution
The transition from the medieval worldview to a largely secular, rational, and materialistic perspective; began in 17th century and popularized in 18th.

11. II. Science and Politics: HELIOCENTRISM A. Did Copernicus Copy
II. Science and Politics: HELIOCENTRISM A. Did Copernicus Copy? ) Nicolaus Copernicus
a) Polish cleric/canon
` b) Studied canon law, astronomy in Padua, Bologna and Rome
2) Copernicus’ Knowledge of work of
Earlier Arab scientists:
a) al-Urdi?
b) al-Tusi?
c) Theory of George Saliba:
Copernicus saw Arabic mss in
Rome describing the Tusi couple

12. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

13. Tusi Couple: Copernicus and Tusi

14. B. Science: The New Authority 1) New instruments add to data collection:
a) Telescope (invented by Hans Lippershay)
b) Microscope – Anton von Leewenhook
2) Galileo Galilei
a) Uses Copernicus' work
b) Adapted telescope to make observations:
i) Craters on moon
ii) Crescent of Venus
iii) Moons of Jupiter

15. 3) Johannes Kepler
a) Kepler worked w/Tycho Brahe –observations of Mars
b) K.’s observations confirm earlier work
c) Kepler’s 3 Laws of Planetary Motion
i) 1st law: The first law says: "The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at one of the foci.“
ii) 2nd law: "A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.“ Also known as the law of equal areas.
iii) 3rd law: "The squares of the orbital of planets are directly proportional to the cubes of the orbits." Thus, not only does the length of the orbit increase with distance, the orbit decreases, so that the increase of the orbital period is more than proportional.

16. Andreas Vesalius Anatomy

18. 4) William Harvey – Blood Circulation
a) Studied Medicine in U. of Padua (grad. 1602)
b) Studied in Venerable English College in Rome
c) 1616: announced discovery of circulatory system
d) 1628: published An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals (Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus)
e) Ibn al-Nafis described pulmonary circulation earlier

19. Francis Bacon & the Scientific Method
a) Francis Bacon
i) Empirical research-Observation and experimentation
ii) Induction – Gather Data
iii) Testable hypothesis
iv) Died after packing snow in a chicken (testing refrigeration methods)
Wrote the New Atlantis – created ideal society

20. b) Rene Descartes (1596-1650) i) French philosopher and mathematician
ii) Universal Doubt – Questioned the basis of his own knowledge
Doubt Everything – Cogito, Ergo Sum
iii) Mind-Body Dualism
iv) died from waking up too early tutoring Queen Christina of Sweden

21. c) Isaac Newton & the Scientific Method
System of natural laws
Used the scientific method to make a range of discoveries
iii) His achievements using the scientific method inspired Enlightenment thinkers

22. C. Absolute and Parliamentary Monarchies. 1)17th c
C. Absolute and Parliamentary Monarchies 1)17th c.: medieval balance disrupted 2) France dominates
a. Centralized monarchy
b. Bureaucracy
c. “Absolute monarchy"
d. Louis XIV the best example
Nobles kept at court 3) Other absolute monarchs
a) Spain, Prussia, Austria-Hungary
b) Territorial expansion
4) England
a) Different from Absolute Monarchies
b) Civil War ( )
c) Parliament triumphant

23. D. The Nation-State – develop in the 18th Century for first time
1) Definition: Common language, culture
2) National literature, songs, foods
3) Territorial aspect
4) Common allegiance

24. Western Europe under Absolute Monarchies

25. III. The West by 1750 A. Political Patterns
1) Great change in central Europe 2) Frederick the Great of Prussia
a) Religious freedom
b) State regulates economy
c) Overseas commercial networks 3) Continual warfare
a) France v. Britain
i) Rivalry over overseas territory
b) Prussia v. Austria
i) Territorial conflicts

27. Aim: How did the Enlightenment change Europe and the world?

28. What Was the Enlightenment?
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe during the 18th century that led to a whole new world view. – applying Scientific Method to all things

29. The Enlightenment (1700s) Enlightened thinkers believed in
Science and natural law (that laws govern human nature)
Rationalism (the power of human reason)
People can live by these laws and solve society’s problems

30. According to the 18th- century philosopher Immanuel Kant, the “motto” of the Enlightenment was “Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own intelligence!”
(Kant, What Is Enlightenment? 1784)

31. Enlightenment Principles
Religion, tradition, & superstition limited independent thought
Accept knowledge based on observation, logic, and reason, not on faith
Scientific and academic thought should be secular

32. The Chinese Influence on the Enlightenment
In 1601 an Italian Jesuit, Matteo Ricci began a Catholic mission in China.
By 1700 the Catholic mission had converted about 250,000 Chinese to Christianity.
The Europeans there were very well-educated and the Board of Astronomy was placed under their charge until 1838.
Emperor Kang Hsi

33. Fr. Matteo Ricci in China
Fr. Matteo Ricci (l.) &
Xu Guangqi(徐光啟)(r.)
in the Chinese edition of
Euclid's Elements (幾何原本).
1602 map of Far East by Fr. Ricci

35. Matteo Ricci's map: This map got him into some trouble because it did not depict China as the center of the world, the conventional practice in China. Library of Congress

36. Matteo Ricci’s technical explanation in Chinese of European astronomy
Library of Congress

37. Fr. Johann Adam Schall von Bell, S.J.
Father Adam Schall von Bell drew on Kepler’s books in preparing his Chinese Astronomical works.
Jesuit missionaries, like Fr. Matteo Ricci, and Adam Schall von Bell taught that the coherence between the teachings of Christianity and those of Confucius, made Chinese civilization receptive to Western Science.

38. Beijing observatory, designed & built by Fr. Ferdinand Verbiest.

39. European Views of the East
The Europeans in China wrote home about the advanced culture of the Chinese during the 18th century.
This inspired European thinkers because the Chinese were not Christian, and yet maintained a moral society.
The form of government was most inspiring to European philosophes.

40. Gottfried Leibniz as a Sinophile
Was 1st major European intellect to take a close interest in Chinese civilization, which he learned about by writing with, and reading other work by, Jesuit missionaries in China.
Concluded that Europeans could learn from Confucian tradition.
Considered possibility that the Chinese characters were a form of his universal characteristic.
He noted how I Ching hexagrams correspond to binary numbers from 0 to
Concluded that this was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in philosophical mathematics.

42. Chinese Government
Although he was seemingly an absolute monarch, the Chinese emperor was limited by Confucian principles.
“The people are the most important element in the state; the sovereign is the least.”
The Chinese were viewed as a land that did not have an unfair feudal system. Their government was admired because of the civil service exam.

43. The Marquis de Condorcet
French mathematician
Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit
Universal education
Progress and “perfectibility”

44. Enlightenment Thinkers

45. The French Salon and the Philosophes
Madame de Pompadour
Salons: gatherings for aristocrats to discuss new theories and ideas
Philosophes: French Enlightenment thinkers who attended the salons

46. Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet November 21, 1694 – May 30, 1778)
Voltaire was educated by the Jesuits at the College Louis le Grand ( ), where he learned Latin and Greek; later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish, and English.
Most famous philosophe
Wrote plays, essays, poetry, philosophy, and books
Attacked the “relics” of the medieval social order
Championed social, political, and religious tolerance

47. The Encyclopédie Major achievement of the philosophes
Begun in 1745; completed in 1765
Edited by Denis Diderot (below) and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert

48. Deism
Deists believed in God but rejected revelation -organized religion
Morality could be achieved by following reason rather than the teachings of the Church
Lord Herbert of Cherbury, originator of deism (above on right)
“the Great Watchmaker”
Thomas Paine (on right) –
The Rights of Man, The Age of Reason

49. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
Applied rational analysis to the study of government
Attacked the concept of divine right, yet supported a strong monarchy
Believed that humans were basically driven by passions and needed to be kept in check by a powerful ruler
Wrote:
Human Nature and De Corpore Politico (The Elements of Law),
De Cive,
Leviathan,
Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to the year 1662

50. Famous Quotes from Hobbes:
“To this war of every man against every man, this also in consequent; that nothing can be unjust. The notions of right and wrong, justice and injustice have there no place. Where there is no common power, there is no law, where no law, no injustice. Force, and fraud, are in war the cardinal virtues….No arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death: and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.”
"...in the first place, I put for a general inclination of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death.”
"Intemperance is naturally punished with diseases; rashness, with mischance; injustice; with violence of enemies; pride, with ruin; cowardice, with oppression; and rebellion, with slaughter.“
"The source of every crime, is some defect of the understanding; or some error in reasoning; or some sudden force of the passions."

51. John Locke (1632–1704) The “State of Nature” Tabula rasa
Life, Liberty and Property
Wrote:
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
Two Treatises on Civil Government
A Letter Concerning Toleration
The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures
Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money

52. Famous quotes from John Locke
Curiosity in children, is but an appetite for knowledge. One great reason why children abandon themselves wholly to silly pursuits and trifle away their time insipidly is, because they find their curiosity balked, and their inquiries neglected.
There cannot be greater rudeness than to interrupt another in the current of his discourse.
Man hath by nature a power to preserve his property - that is, his life, liberty, and estate - against the injuries and attempts of other men.
The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom. For in all the states of created beings capable of law, where there is no law, there is no freedom.
All mankind... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions.
The actions of men are the best interpreters of their thoughts.

53. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
Philosophized on nature of society & gov’t
Works:
-The Social Contract
-Dissertation sur la musique moderne, 1736
-Discourse on the Arts and Sciences 1750
-Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy, 1752
-Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men 1754
-Discourse on Political Economy
-Julie, or the New Heloise (Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse), 1761
-Émile: or, on Education 1762
-The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Right 1762
-Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1770
-Considerations on the Government of Poland, 1772
-Essay on the Origin of Languages, publ. 1781

54. Quotes from Rousseau
The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said "This is mine," and found people naive enough to believe him, that man was the true founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how many horrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this imposter; you are undone if you once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody.  Discourse on Inequality, 1754
As soon as any man says of the affairs of the State "What does it matter to me?" the State may be given up for lost.
To renounce liberty is to renounce being a man, to surrender the rights of humanity and even its duties. For he who renounces everything no indemnity is possible. Such a renunciation is incompatible with man's nature; to remove all liberty from his will is to remove all morality from his acts
Happiness: a good bank account, a good cook and a good digestion

55. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
French noble and political philosopher
The Spirit of the Laws
Separation of Powers
Mixed Constitution: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and the Commons

56. Women and the Enlightenment
Mary Wollstonecraft
Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787)
Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790)
Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)
Olympe de Gouges
Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Citizen
Social Contract

57. Enlightened Monarchs, or Enlightened Despotism
Most of Europe ruled by absolute monarchs
Receptive to Enlightenment ideas
Instituted new laws and practices
Enlightened Monarchs:
Frederick II, Prussia
Catherine the Great, Russia
Maria Theresa, Austria
Joseph II, Holy Roman Empire
Gustav III, Sweden
Napoleon I, France

58. Frederick the Great (ruled 1740–1786)
Ruler of Prussia
Had a strong interest in Enlightenment works
Induced Voltaire to come to Prussia
Wanted to make Prussia a modern state
Reforms

59. Catherine the Great (ruled 1762–1796)
Russian ruler
Well-versed in Enlightenment works
“Westernizing” Russia
Domestic reforms
Peasant revolt (Pugachev Rebellion)

60. Maria Theresa (ruled 1740–1780)
Austrian ruler
Government reforms
The serfs
Succeeded by her son—Joseph II, another Enlightened Despot

61. Joseph II (ruled 1765–1790)
Ruled as coregent with his mother until 1780
Joseph’s reforms
Religious toleration
Control over the Catholic Church (Josephism)
Abolition of serfdom

62. Gustav III (ruled 1771–1792) Swedish ruler
Read French Enlightenment works
Reforms
Absolutism

63. Napoleon I Came from Buonaparte family in French Corsica
Sent to Military School
Survived The Terror of the French Revolution
Military career
Rose to power under The Directory
Coup Against The Directory
Became First Consul
Spread ideas of the Enlightenment and French Revolution through military force, suppression of dissent, and despotic methods
Reforms in Economy, Education and Law

64. The Enlightenment and the American Revolution
Influence of Locke, Montesquieu on Thomas Jefferson (on left), John Adams, et al.
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, The Crisis, The Rights of Man
The Declaration of Independence (1776)

65. The U.S. Constitution Separation of powers Checks and balances
Bill of Rights

66. The Enlightenment and the French Revolution
Causes:
Enlightenment Ideas
The Example of the American Revolution
Individuals such as the Marquis de Lafayette (right) serving in the American War of Independence
French Government Deficit from aiding the American cause
The Calling of the Estates General

67. The Declaration of the Rights of Man
Adopted by National Assembly in 1789
Principles: “Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité”

68. The Legacy of the Enlightenment
Government
Education
Law
Society

69. B. Enlightenment Thought and Popular Culture 1) Scientific Revolution leads to Enlightenment
2) Scientific methods applied to other fields: history, economics, politics ) General principles: a) People are basically good b) Reason can know the way the universe works, and solve social problems c) Belief in progress ) Political science a) Adam Smith i) enlightened self-interest
ii) Laissez-faire ) Criminology – Cesare Beccaria – On Crimes and Punishments
6) Society a) Women's rights
b) Protection of children
c) Attack inequities

70. Cesare Beccaria: Essay on Crimes and Punishments
“No man can be judged a criminal until he be found guilty; nor can society take from him the public protection until it have been proved that he has violated the conditions on which it was granted. What right, then, but that of power, can authorize the punishment of a citizen so long as there remains any doubt of his guilt? This dilemma is frequent. Either he is guilty, or not guilty. If guilty, he should only suffer the punishment ordained by the laws, and torture becomes useless, as his confession is unnecessary. If he be not guilty, you torture the innocent; for, in the eye of the law, every man is innocent whose crime has not been proved.” from Modern History Sourcebook, fordham.edu

71. Which areas of the world were affected by the ideas of the Enlightenment?

72. C. Ongoing Change in Commerce and Manufacturing. 1) Mass consumerism
C. Ongoing Change in Commerce and Manufacturing 1) Mass consumerism 2) Agricultural Revolution
a) Nitrogen-fixing crops
b) Stockbreeding
c) Swamp drainage
d) New plants such as potatoes, etc. introduced 3) Domestic system (cottage industry)
a) Households produce finished goods
b) Irregular work schedule - sporadic
D. Innovation and Instability 1) Change becomes the norm
2) Traditional Social Patterns Disrupted
(cf. The World We Have Lost)