1. Long lasting change in behavior, due to experience
Learning
Long lasting change in behavior, due to experience

2. Classical Conditioning crash course khanacademy
Ivan Pavlov
studied digestion of dogs
noticed dogs would salivate before they were given food (triggered by sounds, lights etc…)
concluded: dogs must have LEARNED to salivate in response to stimuli other than the food
Click above to see a reenactment of Pavlov’s experiments.

3. Classical Conditioning
This is passive learning.
First, we need an unconditional relationship.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - something that elicits a natural, reflexive response
Unconditioned Response (UCR) - response to the UCS

4. Classical Conditioning
Next, we choose a neutral stimulus (something that by itself elicits no response).
We present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch of times.

5. Classical Conditioning
After a while, the body begins to link together the neutral stimulus with the UCS.
Acquisition

6. Classical Conditioning
We know learning takes places when the previously neutral stimulus provokes the response.
At this point, the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned response becomes the conditioned response (CR).

7. Generalization and Discrimination khanacademy
Something is so similar to the CS that there is the CR.
Something is so different from the CS there is no CR.

8. Classical Conditioning
Acquisition is not permanent.
The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have EXTINCTION.

9. Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes, after extinction, the CR will randomly appear when CS is presented.

10. Classical Conditioning Examples
See if you can identify the UCS, UCR, CS and CR.
Click above to see classical conditioning as portrayed in The Office.
Click above to see classical conditioning in a high school student’s own “experiment”.

11. TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE: UCS ? UCR? CS? CR?
You typically take showers in the locker room after practice. During one such shower, you hear someone flushing a nearby toilet. Suddenly, extremely hot water rushes out of the shower head, causing serious discomfort. As you continue the shower, you hear another toilet flush and immediately jump out form under the shower head.

12. UCS? UCR? CS? CR?
Your mother prepared a tuna sandwich for your lunch. Unfortunately, the mayonnaise she used had been left out too long and was spoiled. Not long after eating, you felt extremely nauseated and had to rush to the bathroom. Thereafter, the mere mention of a tuna sandwich sent you scurrying to the bathroom with a hurting stomach.

13. UCS? UCR? CS? CR?
You were happy when you heard your family's plan to go to a water show. Then you heard the weather report, which predicted temperatures exceeding 100 degrees. As you watched the water skiers perform routines to blaring organ music, you got more and more sweaty and uncomfortable. Eventually, you fainted from the heat. After the family outing you could never again hear organ music without feeling a little dizzy.

14. Watson and “Little Albert”
John Watson (founder of behaviorism) and Rosalie Rayner’s 1913 study on classical conditioning.
“Little Albert” Experiment – Watson paired the presence of a white rat with a loud noise to elicit fear from a young boy.
Albert learned to associate the white rat with loud noises even after the noises had stopped.
Albert even generalized his CR by reacting with fear to other white animals and objects.

16. Classical Conditioning and Humans
Click the image to the left to see footage from the “Baby Albert” experiment.

17. Garcia and Koelling Study
Showed that classical conditioning was influenced by biological predispositions.
Study using rats led to the phenomena known as taste aversion.
Rats learned to avoid drinking from certain water sources that contained water tainted with radiation that made them sick.
Also showed that the CS and the UCS could be paired hours apart and still result in CR. CS
UCS CR
Loud Noise
Radiation (nausea)
NONE
Sweet Water
Shock
Avoid Water

18. Taste Aversions
In cases of food paired with nausea & sickness, conditioning is incredibly strong.
even when food and sickness are hours apart

19. Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.

20. Theories on Taste Aversion
Garcia argues that taste aversion is a byproduct of the evolutionary history of mammals.
Animals that consumed poisonous foods and survive must learn not to repeat their mistakes.
Natural selection will favor organisms that quickly learn what NOT to eat.
Thus, evolution may have biologically programed (or predisposed) some organisms to learn certain types of associations more easily than others.
The AP test will call this (biological) preparedness.

21. Contingency Model Robert Rescorla
revised Pavlov’s classical conditioning model
starts with the realization that something must account for the ability to discriminate between stimuli
emphasized the role of cognitive processes during acquisition
said that classical conditioning “is not a stupid process by which the organism willy-nilly forms associations between any two stimuli that happen to occur.”

22. Cognition in Classical Conditioning
Martin Seligman – developed the idea of learned helplessness
Learned helplessness – passive resignation an organism learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
Seligman’s studies with dogs and shocks showed further evidence of thought processes involved with classical conditioning
Even though dogs conditioned to expect a shock after a flash of light warning were subsequently given a route of escape, many chose to not even attempt escape. They had classically learned to be helpless.

23. Operant Conditioning start @ 5:47
The Learner is NOT passive.
Learning based on consequence!!!
khan academy
Big Bang

24. The Law of Effect Edward Thorndike Locked cats in crates
Behavior changes because of its consequences
Rewards strengthen behavior
If consequences are unpleasant, the stimulus-reward connection will weaken.
Called the whole process instrumental learning
Click picture to see a better explanation of the Law of Effect.

26. B.F. Skinner Psychologist and leading figure in behaviorist movement.
Developed an operant chamber; what came to be known as a “Skinner Box”.
Used the concept of shaping to reinforce a desired behavior.
Shaping involves rewarding responses that are ever-closer to final desired behavior while ignoring all other responses.

27. Skinner Box

28. Types of stimuli Appetitive (pleasant) stimulus
Organism wants to achieve or receive
Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus
Organism wants to avoid or escape from

29. Reinforcers khanacademy
A reinforcer is anything that strengthens (increases) a behavior
Positive Reinforcement:
The addition of something pleasant
Negative Reinforcement:
The removal of something unpleasant

30. Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer
Secondary Reinforcer
stimuli that satisfy a biological need
Food, sleep, sex, thirst, homeostasis, etc.
things that are intrinsically rewarding
things we have learned to value (because they are associated with primary enforcers)
Money, good grades, attention, applause, etc.
Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything)

31. Token Economy
Every time a desired behavior is performed, a “token” is given.
They can trade “tokens” in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers)
Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools.

32. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IS NOT PUNISHMENT

33. Positively or Negatively Reinforced?
Studying for a test.
Putting your seatbelt on.
Taking an aspirin.
Receiving a kiss for doing the dishes.
Faking sick and avoiding AP Psych class.
Breaking out of jail.

34. Reinforcement Puppy Training
Pet experts say that because the way dogs learn the best method for training is based on reward (reinforcement) rather than punishment.
Reinforcement however can also “bite” you if undesirable behaviors are encouraged
Ex: Lucy barks so Mr. Gondek lets her out of her crate.

35. The Premack Principle
According to the Premack Principle, a more probable (or more enjoyable) behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable (or less enjoyable) one.
For example, I study for an hour and then take a break to watch TV or check Facebook. Then I go back to studying. Knowing that the reward of the break is around the corner keeps me working.

36. Punishment A stimulus meant to decrease a behavior Positive Punishment
addition of something unpleasant.
Negative Punishment (Omission Training)
removal of something pleasant
Punishment works best when it immediately follows behavior and is harsh!

37. + Positive - Negative Reinforcement Punishment
Gives something to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject wants this thing/condition)
Takes something to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject does not want this thing/condition)
Gives something to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject does not want this thing/condition)
Takes something to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (the subject would like to have this thing/condition)

38. Same Terminology as Classical Conditioning
If I wanted to reinforce a toddler’s dancing by giving him lollipops when he dances, identify the following…
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization
Discrimination

39. Reinforcement Schedules khanacademy
How often do you give the reinforcer?
Every time the desired behavior is exhibited or just sometimes when it is?

40. Continuous v. Partial Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforce the behavior EVERY TIME the behavior is exhibited.
Usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association.
Acquisition comes really fast, but so does extinction.
Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited.
Acquisition comes more slowly.
But is more resistant to extinction.
FOUR types of Partial Reinforcement schedules.

41. Interval Schedules (Time)
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
Requires a SET (specific) amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
An administrator observes a teacher every other Friday.
Requires a RANDOM (unpredictable) amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
An administrator observes a teacher on random occasions
Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction.

42. Ratio Schedules (Responses)
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Provides a reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses.
Slot machines – you pull 10 times, get money; then you pull 15 times, get money, then you pull 7 times, get money (10:1), (15:1), (7:1)
Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction.
Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses.
You buy 10 smoothies, you get a free one. (10:1)
For every pair of jeans you sell you get $5. (1:5)

43. A Few Notes on Schedules of Reinforcement
More than 50 years of research has yielded an enormous volume of data on how these schedules of reinforcement are related to patterns of responding: 1. Fixed schedules typically cause extinction of behavior more quickly after the reinforcement ceases. 2. Variable schedules have a higher resistance to extinction than fixed schedules. 3. Higher ratios generate higher response rates. (1:1 is better than 10:1) 4. Shorter intervals (time between reinforcement) generate higher rates overall.

45. Skinner and Superstitious Behavior
B.F. Skinner argued that superstitious behavior could be established through non-contingent reinforcement.
Non-contingent reinforcement occurs when an unimportant response is accidentally or unintentionally reinforced.
Skinner used pigeons in operant chambers for his experiments on superstitious behavior.
The pigeons began displaying strange, quirky responses to random reinforcement in the hopes that that behavior would cause another reinforcement.

46. How do we actually use Operant Conditioning? khanacademy
Sometimes, we use a process called shaping.
Shaping is reinforcing small steps on the way to a desired behavior. These small steps are called approximations.

47. Chaining Behaviors
Subjects are taught to link multiple responses together in order to get a reward.
Click picture to see a rat chaining behaviors.
Click to see a cool example of chaining behaviors.

48. Latent Learning
Edward Tolman – demonstrated the concept using rats/mazes & reinforcers.
Learning is not always immediately observable in behavior (“latent” means hidden).
Learning doesn’t completely depend on consequences.
cognitive maps – a mental representation of one’s environment

49. Cognition in operant conditioning
Edward Tolman – displayed cognitive processes in operant conditioning through studies with rats and mazes
In one landmark study, three groups of food deprived rats learned to run a complex maze over a series of once-a-day trials.
The rats in Group A received a food reward when completed.
The rats in Group B did not receive any food reward.
The rats in Group C did not receive any food reward for the first 10 trials but did from the 11th onward.

51. Results of Tolman’s Experiment
As a result of the reinforcement, Group A gradually improved.
Lacking reinforcement, Group B showed only modest improvement.
Once reinforcement began for Group C, they showed sharp improvement on the subsequent trials, even better than Group A.
Tolman concluded that Group C had been learning about the maze all along, but they had no motivation to demonstrate this learning until a reward was introduced.
Tolman called this phenomenon latent learning: learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs

53. Results of Tolman’s Experiment
These results changed our understanding of learning in two ways:
1. They suggested that learning can take place in the absence of reinforcement.
2. The rats who displayed latent learning formed a cognitive map (a mental representation of the maze’s spatial layout) at a time when cognition was thought to be irrelevant in understanding how organisms learn.

54. The Overjustification Effect
Intrinsic v. Extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic = do it because you enjoy it
Extrinsic = do it because you will be reinforced
Studies have proven that rewarding an organism for a task that organism already enjoys doing will cause a decrease in that behavior once the reinforcement ceases.
This is called the overjustification effect.
Would Lebron James still enjoy playing basketball if he were no longer paid for it?

55. Primary vs. Conditioned Schedules Ratio Interval Punishment Negative
Operant Conditioning
Concepts / Components
Reinforcement
Negative vs. Positive
Primary vs. Conditioned
Schedules
Ratio
Interval
Punishment
Negative
Positive
People
Thorndike
Law of Effect / Cat Experiments
Skinner
Skinner Box / Rat & Bird Experiments
Response / Stimulus Associations

56. Insight Learning
Wolfgang Kohler - Chimpanzees / Boxes & Bananas experiment
Learning takes place through the “ah ha” experience (gaining “insight”).
Weakens the behaviorist argument (emphasis on external, behavior / consequence relationship)

57. Images from Kohler’s chimpanzee experiments

58. Observational Learning
Observational learning - a type of social cognitive learning; learning by observing others
Social cognitive learning (or the Social Learning Theory) says learning happens by watching other being rewarded or punished for a specific behavior.
We learn all kinds of specific behaviors by observing and imitating others, a process called modeling.

59. Neurological basis of Observational Learning
Recently scientists have discovered specific types of neurons related to observational learning.
Mirror neurons - a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another
Some argue that mirror neurons are used to humans understand the actions and intentions of others.
Some say they are tied to language development and emotional displays of empathy.
Low levels have been linked to autism.

60. Bandura and Observational Learning khanacademy crash course
Albert Bandura - BoBo Doll experiment
Learning through modeling behavior from others.
Experiment showcased the degree to which children vicariously learn and subsequently imitate behaviors learned by observing adults
Implications of Bandura’s findings?
Click pic to see footage from the Bobo Doll experiment.

61. Classical Conditioning S + S Operant Conditioning R + S Other
Learning
Associative Learning
Classical Conditioning
S + S
Operant Conditioning
R + S
Other
Latent Learning
Insight Learning
Observational Learning