1. WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT IN RURAL AREAS
AYO OLAJUYIGBE, PhD, fnitp
Associate Professor
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
The Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
An invited paper presented at the 2017 Ekiti State World Water Day, 2nd May, 2017

2. PRESENTATION OUTLINE Introduction What is Wastewater?
Sources of Wastewater
Constituents of Wastewater
Quality of Wastewater
Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater as a Resource
Conclusion and Recommendations 2 2

3. INTRODUCTION
Water is fundamentally important to human survival and inextricably linked with the health of the environment and economy
Irrespective of its importance, over 80% of the wastewater generated by society flows back into the environment without being reused or treated (Sato et al, 2013).
The quantity of wastewater produced and its overall pollution load keep increasing due to increasing population and improved economy.
In the rural areas:
For centuries low population densities meant that water consumption levels were modest while pollution from wastewater was low. 3 3

4. INTRODUCTION (Cont’d)
Besides, the natural environment could then absorb the pollution loads, and thus were not really polluted.
Continued growth of population and economy occurring will result in further damage in the years ahead unless appropriate actions are taken to manage wastewater.
The rural areas in the developing countries are more vulnerable because of neglect and widened gap between the rural and urban sectors.
Pollution from untreated wastewater has adverse effects on human health:
1.8 billion People use sources of drinking water contaminated with faeces.
The combination of inadequate sanitation, poor hygiene, and unsafe drinking water results into an estimated annual burden of 2 million diarrheal deaths (WHO/UNICEF, 2014). 4 4

5. INTRODUCTION (Cont’d)
663 million peoples still lack improved drinking water sources, and global demand for water is expected to increase by 50% by
In view of the above, the opportunities from exploiting wastewater as a resource are therefore enormous:
Safely managed wastewater provides an affordable and sustainable sources of water, energy, nutrients and other recoverable materials.
This year World Water Day’s theme is Wastewater Management. The campaign is ‘Why Waste Water?’
Thus, this campaign is about REDUCING and REUSING wastewater. 5 5

6. WHAT IS WASTEWATER? Wastewater is water that has been used.
It is any water whose quality has been adversely compromised by anthropogenic (human) influence.
It can originate from a combination of domestic, industrial, commercial, agricultural activities, surface runoff or storm water, and from sewer inflow or infiltration.
In advanced countries, municipal wastewater (also called sewage) is usually conveyed in a combined sewer or sanitary sewer, and treated at a wastewater treatment plant.
Treated wastewater is subsequently discharged into receiving water/artificial lake/storage tank via a discharge pipe. 6 6

7. WHAT IS WASTEWATER? (Cont’d)
In most developing countries, including Nigeria, wastewaters generated in areas without access to centralized sewer systems rely on on-site wastewater systems: septic tank, drain field, and on an on-site treatment unit.
Wastewater quantity is mainly determined by water consumption, climate and state of sewerage system. 7 7

8. WHAT IS WASTEWATER? (Cont’d)
Figure 1: Typical Wastewater 8 8

9. SOURCES OF WASTEWATER
Human wastes (faeces, urine and other body fluids including water from lavatories, septic tanks or soakaways - blackwater.
Rainfall runoff from roads, car parks, roofs, sidewalks/pavements (contains oils, animal feces, litter, gasoline/petrol, diesel or rubber residues from tires, soapscum, metals from vehicle exhausts, etc.) – Stormwater.
Washing water (laundry, floors, kitchen etc) - Greywater
Industrial wastewater
Industrial site drainage (silt, sand, alkali, oil, chemical residues);
Industrial cooling waters (biocides, heat, slimes, silt)
Industrial process waters
Organic or biodegradable waste, including waste from abattoirs 9 9

10. SOURCES OF WASTEWATER (Cont’d)
Organic or non bio-degradable/difficult-to-treat waste (pharmaceutical or pesticide manufacturing)
Extreme pH waste (from acid/alkali manufacturing, metal plating)
Toxic waste (metal plating, cyanide production, pesticide manufacturing, etc.)
Solids and emulsions (paper manufacturing, foodstuffs, lubricating and hydraulic oil manufacturing, etc.)
Manmade liquids (illegal disposal of pesticides, used oils, etc.)
Agricultural drainage, direct and diffuse
Hydraulic fracturing
Produced water from oil & natural gas production 10 10

11. SOURCES OF WASTEWATER (Cont’d)
Wastewater can be diluted or mixed with other types of water in the form of:
Seawater ingress (high volumes of salt and microbes)
Direct ingress of river water
Rainfall collected on roofs, yards, hard-standings, etc.
Groundwater infiltrated into sewage 11 11

12. CONSTITUENTS Wastewater contains:
Water (more than 95 percent), which is often added during flushing to carry waste down a drain;
Pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, prions and parasitic worms;
Non-pathogenic bacteria;
Organic particles such as faeces, hairs, food, vomit, paper fibers, plant material, humus, etc.;
Soluble organic material such as urea, fruit sugars, soluble proteins etc.;
Inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, ceramics, etc.;
Soluble inorganic material such as ammonia, road-salt, sea-salt, cyanide, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, etc.; 12 12

13. CONSTITUENTS (Cont’d)
Animals such as protozoa, insects, arthropods, small fish, etc.;
Macro-solids such as sanitary napkins, nappies/diapers, condoms, needles, children's toys, dead animals or plants, etc.;
Gases such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.;
Emulsions such as paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colorants, emulsified oils, etc.;
Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc.
Pharmaceuticals and hormones and other hazardous substances 13 13

14. QUALITY OF WASTEWATER
The quality of wastewater may be defined by its physical, chemical and biological characteristics.
Physical parameters - Temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, colour, odour, and turbidity.
Chemical Parameters - Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Total Oxygen Demand (TOD), Inorganic chemical parameters (alkalinity, salinity, hardness, acidity and concentrations of cations such as Manganese, Iron, Anions (sulfates, chlorides, nitrates and phosphates).
Biological Parameters - (Coliform, E-Coli, algae, protozoa, specific pathogens and viruses) 14 14

15. QUALITY OF WASTEWATER (Cont’d)
Any oxidizable material present in an aerobic natural waterway or in an industrial wastewater will be oxidized both by biochemical (bacterial) or chemical processes. The result is that the oxygen content of the water will be decreased.
The major sources of natural water pollution load come from the effluents generated from domestic activities or wastewater
This can lead to a point source pollution problem
It could also introduce a wide range of pollutants and microbial contaminants to water sources (wells and boreholes)
Wastewater that is directed to the environment can provide a breeding ground for mosquitoes, houseflies, rodents and other vectors of communicable diseases such as dysentery, diarrhea. 15 15

16. QUALITY OF WASTEWATER (Cont’d)
Where wastewater is not properly managed, the following are the damages caused and the cost of inaction:
Increased illness or mortality due to ingestion or skin contact with contaminated water, raising direct health care cost (treatment expenses, lost income) and indirect opportunity cost
It makes additional treatment costs necessary in the drinking and industrial water productivity sector
Farmers loose income due to loss of productive days
Tourism industry depends on environmentally attractive areas; poor water quality deters tourists, lowering revenue to the government.
The use of wastewater containing toxic wastes can cause an increase in water-borne diseases and environmental degradation 16 16

17. QUALITY OF WASTEWATER (Cont’d)
It can also affect groundwater quality when nutrients leached to the sub-soil polluting underground water;
Near surface aquifer in intensely irrigated areas using wastewater can become polluted, thereby reducing aquifer potability (Bolaane and Ikgopoleng, 2011).
Wastewater should be properly managed in order to prevent pollution of water sources and for public health reasons. Presently in Nigeria, wastewater is poorly managed due to the absence of sewerage facilities (either separate or combined).
In advanced countries sewage pass through pipes called sewers.
A combined sewer carries stormwater and wastewater in the same pipe.
A separate sewer network has two pipes which carry stormwater and wastewater separately.
The pipe which carries wastewater in a separate sewer network is referred to as a foul sewer. 17 17

18. WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Wastewater can be treated in wastewater treatment plants which include physical, chemical and biological treatment processes.
Municipal wastewater is treated in sewage treatment plants (which may also be referred to as wastewater treatment plants).
Agricultural wastewater may be treated through agricultural wastewater treatment processes
Industrial wastewater is treated through industrial wastewater treatment processes.
There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from bacteria and viruses. 18 18

19. WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Figure 1: Simplified process flow diagram for a typical large-scale treatment plant 19 19

20. WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Figure 3: Wastewater Treatment Plant 20 20

21. WASTEWATER TREATMENT (Cont’d)
The following are some of the typical technologies:
Ozona ion
Ultrafiltration
Aerobic treatment (membrane bioreactor)
Forward osmosis
Reverse osmosis
Advanced oxidation.
Some wastewater may be highly treated and reused as reclaimed water.
Treated water can also be diverted to constructed wetlands for agricultural purposes. 21 21

22. WASTEWATER AS A RESOURCE
Wastewater can be a resource, when properly managed:
Its nutrients can be used for crop production, thus providing significant benefits to the farming communities,
It is a renewable resource that can be reclaimed once used and can be used again for different purposes.
The reclaimed water can be used for irrigation of public parks, athletic fields, recreation centres, school yards and playing fields
The reclaimed water can be used for toilets and urinals in public buildings, fire protection etc.
Above uses will greatly reduce the overstretching of community potable water. 22 22

23. WASTEWATER AS A RESOURCE (Cont’d)
In addition, treated wastewater can be reused in:
Industry (for example in cooling towers),
Artificial recharge of aquifers
Rehabilitation of natural ecosystems
In rare cases it is also used to augment drinking water supplies
Some water demanding activities do not require high grade water (e.g. irrigation). Thus, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment.
There are benefits of using recycled water for irrigation:
Lower cost compared to some other sources
Consistency of supply regardless of season
Climatic conditions and associated water restrictions. 23 23

24. WASTEWATER AS A RESOURCE (Cont’d)
Irrigation with recycled wastewater can also serve to fertilize plants if it contains nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Around 90% of wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries.
Increasingly, agriculture is using untreated wastewater for irrigation.
Today Israel reclaims 87% of wastewater for agricultural purposes, which is the highest rate of wastewater reuse in the world
Because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste directly to water their crops. 24 24

25. WASTEWATER AS A RESOURCE (Cont’d)25 25

26. WASTEWATER AS A RESOURCE (Cont’d)26 26

27. WASTEWATER AS A RESOURCE (Cont’d)
Figure 6: Management of rural wastewater mostly involves on-site treatment as there is often no interconnecting means of treating numerous residences. Above is a typical septic tank system 27 27

28. WASTEWATER AS A RESOURCE (Cont’d)
Health risks of using untreated wastewater in agriculture:
Wastewater from cities can contain a mixture of chemical and biological pollutants.
In low-income countries, there are often high levels of pathogens from excreta, while in emerging nations, where industrial development is outpacing environmental regulations; there are increasing risks from inorganic and organic chemicals.
In realization of such risks, WHO in collaboration with FAO and UNEP has developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 28 28

29. WASTEWATER AS A RESOURCE (Cont’d)
The guidelines advocate a “multiple-barrier approach” to wastewater use which encourages farmers to adopt various risk- reducing behaviours. These include:
Ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight
Applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw
Cleaning vegetables with disinfectant
Allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as human manure. 29 29

30. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Rather than letting water literally go down the drain, this precious commodity has to be reused, recycled and used as efficiently as possible. Most especially, wastewater MUST be reduced.
Wastewater should no longer be seen as a problem, but as part of the solution to challenges that all societies are facing.
Treated wastewater can be a cost-efficient, sustainable, safe and reliable alternative source of water for a variety of purposes – from irrigation and industrial uses to drinking water, particularly under conditions of water scarcity.
For this, we need to change mind-sets, to raise awareness and redouble educational efforts to share the benefits of wastewater reuse. 30 30

31. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS (Cont’d)
We need to see improved wastewater management at the heart of the rural economy. The benefits are wide-ranging including food security, energy security and climate change impact mitigation.
Key steps that could be taken to ensure effective utilization of wastewater for agriculture:
Regulation and a support system towards building sewage collection and treatment infrastructures
Regulation of disposal of substances into the sewage that might limit the usage potential
Regulation of sewage treatment and treated sewage quality that will ensure sanitary and agronomical standards enabling safe reuse of reclaimed wastewater in agriculture
Applied research of the threats of wastewater based agriculture development. 31 31

32. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS (Cont’d)
Regulating sanitary aspects of reclaimed wastewater for agriculture, matching treated water and water quality to the irrigation and cultivation method
Personal Steps to take to reduce Wastewater at household level: UN Water suggests taking these simple steps
Turn off the tap while you’re brushing your teeth
Turn off the tap while washing up or scrubbing vegetables.
Put rubbish, oils, chemicals and food in the bin, not down the drain. The dirtier your wastewater, the more energy and money it costs to treat it.
Collect used water from your kitchen sink or bath and use it to water your plants
You can also collect and use this water to wash your bike or car. 32 32

33. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS (Cont’d)
Institutional Steps to reduce Wastewater and enhance water supply:
Capacity building through the establishment of Water Users Associations whose members will be trained by experts on monitoring, maintenance and repair of water systems. Specifically, leaders of such association shall be trained in the use and repair of water pumps, generators; and water safety and purification. On the other hand, these trained leaders should lead workshops throughout the community in a bid to expand grassroots knowledge.
Local communities could be encouraged to develop new sustainable water sources through drilling of new wells and boreholes and repair of existing one; and build and repair water towers. 33 33

34. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS (Cont’d)
Appropriate institution should evolve and enforce appropriate standards on the distance between location of latrines/soakaways pits and water points (boreholes and wells) to prevent pollution
Communities in the relatively dry part of the state could be mobilized to initiate drip irrigation projects, which minimize the use of water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants.
Households and communities could be encouraged to develop water catchment systems, which collect rainwater from a roof or other surface before it reaches the ground and store it for future use.  34 34

35. THANK YOU ALL FOR LISTENING35 35

36. Centralized Wastewater System advocated
A template on wastewater management – evidence-based
Only economic impacts was discussed
The need to have a set of resolutions to educate the rural dwellers
Education curriculum even at primary school level
Town planning regulations to address wastewater management. Ditto private developers