1. The Cognitive Level of Analysis
Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies.
Memory Schema – baddely and hitch
Atkinson and schiffrin Multi Store Model

2. Memory from the start...
Cognitive theorists focussed on processes (Ebbingaus)
Biological researchers wanted to find the ‘engram’ (Flourens and Lashley)
Today, studied cooperatively!
Accepted that there are different types of memory
Declarative
Procedural
Episodic
All appear to be processed in different parts of the brain.
Cognitive and biological theorists originally approached the study of memory from two very different perspectives.  Cognitive theorists, like Hermann Ebbinghaus, focused on processes; biological researchers, like Flourens and Lashley, wanted to find “the engram.” Today cognitive and biological theorists work hand-in-hand in the study of memory.
There are several different types of memory: declarative, procedural, and episodic memory are just three examples.  They appear to be processed in different parts of the brain.

3. Ancient history...
Plato described the mind as like an aviary, with memories flying around all over the place. He coined the term ‘bird-brain’ to describe someone forgetful whose thoughts were constantly flying around so that they couldn’t keep hold of them.
How does this analogy hold up?
What are the issues with this simplistic spatial metaphor?
it doesn't explain how we can very rapidly decide we don't know something
• the thorough searching implied does not seem to occur
• retrieval seems to make use of a flexible system, rather than a rigid placing of items

4. The Multi-Store Model, 1968 Atkinson and Shiffrin
Sensory Memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Assumes that the stores operate as a unit and in uniform fashion
Unlikely that all info in the LTM is stored in shelf-like linear blocks
Does not allow for the idea of memories created without repetition
Increased rehearsal does not always lead to storage
Does not explain reconstructive memory
Sensory Memory
Modality specific
Limited to a few seconds
Short-term memory
Around 7 items
Limited to 6-12 seconds
Material quickly lost if not given attention
Long-term memory
Vast storehouse of information
Believed to be indefinite duration and infinite capacity
Not an exact replica
Memories can be distorted
We fill in gaps...
The Multi-Store Model, Atkinson and Shiffrin
Follows the Plato idea of specifics...
Loss
(unavailable)
Decay

5. Support for Atkinson and Shiffrin
The Serial Positioning Curve
Glanzer and Cunitz
Free recall of 20 items
Primacy and recency effect support the idea of the STS
Primacy suggests that information is stored and then retrieved
Recency is the active STM, prior to encoding into the LTM
Interference during this stage prevents it from being stored
The Serial Positioning Curve (Glanzer & Cunitz) demonstrates the phenomena of primacy and recency effect.  This seems to support the ideas of STM and LTM as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
When being delayed 20 secs, asked to count backwards – interrupted the encoding and recalling of the later items.
Proves there are two processes in retrieving information, and that time is required for storage to take place

6. Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model
Based on the Multi-Store Model
Challenged the view that STM is a single store
controlling system
slave systems
Baddely and Hitch

7. Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model
The Central Executive
Controlling system – monitors the other aspects
Limited capacity, but modality free
Most important job is attentional control
Automatic level
Based on habit – controlled automatically by stimuli from environment
Supervisory attention level
Emergencies, or new strategies – when what is there is no longer sufficient
attention
Baddely later said attentional control was the most important
e.g. – cycling
Basic habit is to pedal – automatic level
If a car swerves towards you, you need a new strategy – supervisory attention
Any other examples of this?
• Switching of retrieval plans
• Timesharing in dual-task studies
• Selective attention
• Temporary activation of long-term memory.

8. Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model
The Episodic Buffer
Recall of specific episodes
Details of a place
The sound of a band/song
Links information across the domains
Time sequencing, chronology
A temporary passive display store until the information is needed
The processing takes place elsewhere
subconscious
Like a tv screen – it holds the info, while you look at it/access it
Added in 2000, following seeing amnesiacs have a strong short term memory, despite no long term memory

9. Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model
The Phonological Loop
Articulatory Control System
Inner voice – speech perception
Holds information in verbal form
A telephone number you repeat to yourself
Phonological Store
Inner ear – speech production
Speech-based material in phonological form
Info only lasts secs if not repeated by the articulatory control system
sound system
Baddely and Hitch

10. Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model
The Visuospatial Sketchpad
Inner eye
Visual and spatial information from either the sensory memory or the LTM
Limited capacity
Visual Cache – stores form and colour information
Inner Scribe – spatial and movement information
vision
The inner scribe transfers info to the visual cache and the central exec

11. Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model
Evidence!
Dual task techniques
Interference tasks
A cognitive task, using the majority of the memory
...Whilst performing a second cognitive task
If two tasks use separate sections, they should be performed as well together as apart
If the two tasks interfere with each other so that one or both are impaired, then it is assumed that both tasks use the same component in STM
We’re going to do this!
Recite a poem whilst answering maths questions?

12. Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model
Evidence!
Dual task techniques
Interference tasks – Baddely and Hitch, 1974
Read whilst trying to memorise a sequence of numbers
Clear and systematic increase in reasoning time if people had to undergo a memory test at the same time.
Task was significantly impaired when remembering 6 numbers, but not when remembering 3.
Baddely and Hitch
You can watch tv – pictures and sounds – separate sections
But it’s very hard to listen to two people at once.

13. Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model
Evaluation!
More satisfactory than Multi-Store Model
Active storage and processing, rather than passive
Useful for all types of cognitive tasks
Explains why people are able to multi task
Working memory test battery for children
Pickering and Gathercole
Working memory capacity increases from ages 5 to 15
Deficits in the phonological loop have been shown to link with problems in maths and reading
Passive – not reacting visibly or readily
Serious role in learning. Capacity of working memory varies enormously across similar age groups.
Visuospatial sketchpad shown to be linked with mathematical skill. Maths performance can be predicted significantly through visual tests – like the CATs/IQ test
Robins et al’s 1996 dual task study