Transforming the School Counseling Profession

Transforming the School Counseling Profession
Chapter One Transforming the School Counseling Profession

The School: The Primary Workplace for School Counselors
School counseling is one component of a complex system that is being held accountable for educating today’s students to a higher level of academic proficiency than ever before. The transformed school counseling profession must align its inputs, processes and outcomes for students with the new mission of schools.

Four Forces Driving Change in Schools
Inequities in the educational system Changes in the nation’s demographics and school populations Changes in the economy and the workplace Major changes in educational public policy

Inequities in the Educational System
In the 1980s, a report titled A Nation At Risk concluded that the education system in the United States lagged behind that of other industrialized nations. The report found that the United States’ educational system lacked a set of coherent academic content standards to define what all students should know and be able to do as a result of their 12 years of public education.

Inequities in the Educational System
Subsequent to A Nation at Risk, a group of policy makers issued a report highlighting the systemic barriers that contribute to the poor/under achievement of students of color and students of low income families. The educational system systematically and consistently provides less to students who have the greatest educational needs. The educational system operating in this manner is an inherently inequitable state of affairs that professional school counselors must address.

Changes in the Nation’s Demographics and School Populations
Communities are changing as a result of immigration, declining birth rates among some populations, and the general aging of the population. To maintain the nation’s status as a world power and to protect and maintain the democratic way of life, the education system must educate all of its citizens. Resources must be distributed equitably, based on student need (i.e., those who need more should get more) if we are to meet the mandate of education for all students to higher levels of academic proficiency.

Changes in the Economy and the Workplace
The global economy, technological advances and the explosion of knowledge in science and related fields has resulted in major changes in the workplace and the requirements for success in the workplace. All students need to be provided with the opportunity to master challenging academic content to participate successfully in the local and global economy.

Changes in the Economy and the Workplace
There have been significant increases in the skills and knowledge required for success at all levels in the 21st century workplace—from entry skill jobs to professional training. The academic performance of students in the United States is being surpassed by the students in its international industrialized competitor countries. Students in the United States consistently score lower on international assessments of mathematics and science than students in other industrialized and even some non-industrialized nations.

Major Changes in Education Public Policy
The 1992 Reauthorization of the Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) brought a sea change to the educational landscape. The ESEA required all schools educating students from low income families to educate their students to the same challenging academic content standards as all other schools. The ESEA instituted another deep policy change, a change from a focus on inputs to measuring success. All districts and schools receiving federal support from Title 1 of the ESEA were held accountable for the academic results of all students.

Major Changes in Education Public Policy
As required by law, The Title 1 of the ESEA was reauthorized in 2000 and came to be known as the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act. It strengthened the accountability provisions of the original law because the requirements were being ignored for the most part by states and districts. NCLB, among other changes, requires states to set time lines for closing achievement gaps and set a 12 year time frame for getting all students to proficiency. These accountability policies affect all of the professionals in the education system.

Education Reform The policy to promote college level learning for all students is a response to the changes in the demographic and economic landscape. The National Governor’s Association declared high school reform in America its highest priority. As a result of this attention, 34 states have increased their graduation requirements and are requiring students to complete a rigorous curriculum.

Education Reform As is so often the case in the initiation of sweeping education reforms, there is a lag between policy adoption and successful implementation. Expecting all students to achieve at proficient levels makes obsolete the long standing school system and counselor-implemented practice of sorting students into the categories of “college and non-college bound.” All students are now to be educated to academic levels that would allow them to be prepared to make the choice to enter post-secondary training without the need for remediation – and succeed.

Education Reform Professional school counselors need to help develop and implement institutional policies to ensure that all students have access to the challenging curriculum required by the new law. The transformed school counselor, while addressing the needs of individual students, will have an eye on the institutional policies and practices that impede student progress.

The forces pushing for change in education and the resulting revisions in education policies provided the impetus for the Transforming School Counseling Initiative (TSCI). The Initiative was built on the premise that school counseling, as a profession, had to move from a focus on primarily fixing individual students to removing the systemic barriers to student success for whole groups of students.

A new vision for school counseling was developed and distributed by the Education Trust (1996). This new vision highlighted movement from traditional practice to a vision of the professional school counselor being a proactive, change agent and advocate that focused on supporting and creating pathways for all students to have school success. Teaming and collaboration, advocacy and leadership are the lynchpins on which the Initiative structured changes in the way professional school counselors should be trained.

The ASCA National Standards and Model
National Standards for School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) was published as a standardized basis for comprehensive, developmental guidance services. The three domains for the these standards are: Academic, career, personal/social The National Standards are a historical landmark in the profession and help school systems around the country develop school counseling curricula. Subsequent to publishing the Standards, ASCA developed and published the ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs that represented a more comprehensive approach for integration of the Standards into a school counseling program.

Impact of Change on School Counselor Practice
Professional school counselors must design data driven school counseling programs that fit into the mission of today’s schools: Rigorous standards and accountability for all students. Accountability is the professional school counselor’s responsibility—not just teachers and administrators. Professional school counselors need to integrate themselves into school reform by collaborating with all school staff instead of working as ancillary personnel removed from the instructional side of schools.

Impact of Change on School Counselor Practice
Successful school counselors in 21st Century schools will shift from focusing on fixing individual students to fixing the policies and practices in the educational system that contribute to academic failure of students. Professional school counselors also must: Become proactive leaders rather than “helper responders.” Shift the focus from mental health and individual changes to the whole-school and systemic concerns that fit the whole-school’s mission of academic achievement. Use “hard data” to prove accountability.

A Call for Change in School Counselor Preparation Programs
Need to move from the 3 “C’s” of counseling (i.e., counseling, consultation, and coordination) to a broader range of roles, including: Advocacy and systemic change Leadership Teaming and collaboration Counseling and coordination Assessment and use of data

Accountability: Making School Counseling Count
To act as agents of school and community change, professional school counselors must: 1. Provide and articulate a well-defined developmental counseling program with attention to equity, access, and support services. 2. Routinely use data to analyze and improve access to, and success in, rigorous academic courses for underrepresented students. 3. Actively monitor the progress of underrepresented students in rigorous courses and provide assistance or interventions when needed. 4. Actively target and enroll underrepresented students into rigorous courses. 5. Develop, coordinate, and initiate support systems designed to improve the learning success of students experiencing difficulty with rigorous academic programs.

Leadership and Transformed School Counselor Practice
Role Responsibilities of the Professional School Counselor 1. High standards for all students. 2. Remove learning barriers. 3. Teach students skills need to help themselves. 4. Teach how to succeed in the school system. 5. Teach how to utilize academic support systems. 6. Use data to promote program changes. 7. Work with all school personnel. 8. Offer staff development training to promote higher student standards. 9. Eliminate myths 10. Promote community activities for higher student standards. 11. Help parents & the community design ways to work with schools to support higher students standards. 12. Serve as a community resource.

What Prevents Professional School Counselors From Changing?
1. Homeostasis - unwillingness to change. 2. Administration dictating responsibilities. 3. Accepting additional responsibilities. 4. Pressure from special interest groups dictating the professional school counselor’s role. 5. No follow-up reports. 6. Time consumed by special education mandates. 7. Time consumed by quasi-administrative tasks.

What Prevents Professional School Counselors From Changing (Continued)
8. Role as a mental health counseling provider with excessive client loads. 9. Professional school counselor not determining their role. 10. Little professional development provided for the professional school counselor. 11. Time consumed by crisis management. 12. Lack of involvement with school reform. 13. Not viewing academic achievement as the primary goal. 14. Working to change students, not the system.

A Sense of Urgency is Propelling Change
The sense of urgency to help all students be successful in school is propelling professional school counselors to change. Many professional school counselors are seizing the opportunity to be leaders in schools and work as advocates for students.

A Sense of Urgency is Propelling Change
The transformed school counselor is now working in school districts that are held accountable for making sure that all students have an opportunity to achieve academic success in challenging curricula. Professional school counselors must maximize their capacity to impact the greatest number of students in need of their help. The transformed school counselor must also develop the capacity to determine when the intervention should be focused on individual students or when the intervention should be focused on the changing the policies and practices being implemented by the system that are the source of student failure and/or student social distress.

Conclusion The vision for professional school counselors presented in this book is cutting edge, compelling, and essential to maintaining the profession in the 21st century and beyond. This vision puts professional school counselors in the middle of school reform and gives them an opportunity to demonstrate that they do make a difference in the success of students. Professional school counselors will be valued when they demonstrate effectiveness in making systemic changes that allow all students access to rigorous academic programs and support for success.

Historical Roots and Future Issues
Chapter Two Historical Roots and Future Issues

The Rise of School Counseling in the United States
Throughout history, every society has found methods to give selected young people direction and support as they questioned who they might become. But “guidance” and “counseling” were neither planned or made available to all young people. With educational reform in the late 19th century and the impending industrial revolution, the field of school guidance and counseling was formed.

Vocational Guidance Although, there are several names associated with the start of vocational guidance, the person generally regarded as the primary architect in the U.S. is Frank Parsons. Parsons’ experiences in the industrial field exposed him to immigrants from Europe that, in his opinion, were not able to use their abilities or to prosper economically or socially because of the haphazard way they found employment. It was these experiences that led him to provide vocational guidance and counseling. In 1908, Parsons founded the Vocational Bureau of Boston and in 1909 Choosing a Vocation was published.

Vocational Guidance Parsons’ legacy in vocational guidance lived on through his book, Choosing a Vocation, which laid out the principles and methods for implementing vocational guidance. In 1917, the Vocations Bureau became a part of Harvard University’s Division of Education. Parsons’ most famous contribution to the field is what became known as the trait and factor approach. This involves a person’s self- evaluated traits and personal needs being matched with a career. Many leaders in American education then began to adapt to Parsons’ paradigm of vocational guidance.

Educational Reform At the turn of the century, the rapidly growing industrial society called for less bookish information and more of a focus on industrial education. School systems began to focus on individualized education. This facilitated the use of the guidance worker for not only vocational guidance but also for educational success.

School Counseling in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s
Hutson (1958) suggested that there were five other roles of the professional school counselor in addition to vocational guidance. Student Personnel Administration: Counselors became the Dean of Students in some schools. Their job was to deal with personal and disciplinary problems. They were also in charge of admissions and placement. Psychologists: Counselors administered achievement and diagnostic tests. Also, they were responsible for providing specialized services to students experiencing learning or behavioral problems.

School Counseling in the 1920s, 1930s, & 1940s (cont.)
Mental Hygiene and Psychiatry: This role involved advocacy for students with emotional problems to aid in the development of wholesome personalities. Personnel Work in Industry: This involved preparatory work for entrance into personnel work in industry. Social Work: While professional school counselors traditionally have been involved in community outreach, social workers became more available in schools allowing the role of the professional school counselor to become more school-bound.

Guidance for the Individual
Guidance as the Personalization of Education: This emphasized the importance of personalizing “mass education” by utilizing students’ individual talents. Guidance as the Integration of Education: Cowley believed counselors should help students identify talents and motivations in order to effectively sort through educational options and create a unified course of instruction.

Guidance for the Individual (cont.)
Guidance as the Coordination of Student Personnel Services: Cowley suggested that counselors be given all information from other mental health workers so they could coordinate all specialist services available to students. Therefore, the professional school counselor would be dealing not only with the specific problem of a person, but with the whole person.

School Counseling Comes Into It’s Own: The 1950s and 1960s
Carl Rogers’ theory of client-centered counseling became integrated into the model of school counseling programs. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) was founded in 1952. In 1959 the National Association of Guidance Supervisors and Counselor Trainers took on a five year project to outline standards for education in the preparation of secondary school counselors.

School Counseling Comes Into It’s Own: The 1950s and 1960s (cont.)
The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) identified professional school counselors as sociopolitical instruments to achieve national goals. The impetus for this legislation was the launch of Sputnik in 1957 by the Soviet Union. To ensure the United States’ competitiveness in the “space race,” counselors began to test students and encourage high achieving students to go into the “hard sciences.”

The Effects of the National Defense Education Act
Through Title V-A of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA), funding became available for professional school counselors in most schools. NDEA made training available to professional school counselors to enhance their skills as testers. Many university programs were beginning to train professional school counselors. By the end of the 1960s professional school counselors were vital in achieving the multiple missions in schools (e.g., dropout prevention, academic scheduling, educational and career guidance, crisis intervention, etc.).

The Great Society Legislation of the 1960s
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) designated funds for guidance and counseling. The Vocational Education Act Amendments of 1968 advocated for career guidance programs, responses to the disadvantaged or those with disabilities, and expanding the concept of guidance and counseling, including its extension into elementary schools.

The Years of Consolidation and Refinement: The 1970s and Beyond
Career education was an important development that was reflected in the Career Education Incentive Act of 1976. During the 1980s and into the 1990s the focus of professional school counselors was on dealing with child abuse, drug abuse prevention, and drop-out prevention. In 2006 the ratio of students to school counselors was 561 to 1. Even though the suggested ratio is 250 to 1.

Multicultural Diversity
Federal legislation in the 1960s banned segregated schools. School counselors were given the responsibility of working with culturally diverse groups of students, allow them to “air” their concerns about integration, and create a plan to help students respect one another. There was, however, a lack of attention to issues of cultural diversity in counseling theory and practice. During the past 35 years, ethnic and racial differences have been emphasized and incorporated into counseling theory and practice, and will be a constant presence in training counselors throughout the 21st century.

The Latter Decades of the 20th Century
Most legislation during the 1980s and 1990s focused on the need for counselors to deal with issues such as child abuse, drug abuse and prevention, and dropout prevention. There was also an emphasis on career guidance. Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984/Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act of 1990: These two acts were the major federal sources of funding for guidance and counseling in schools. School to Work Opportunities Act: This Act reinforced the importance of career guidance as students make the transition from school to employment.

The Latter Decades of the 20th Century (cont.)
In 2003, the National Career Development Guidelines Project was commissioned by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Vocational and Adult Education. In 2005, they created a website for counselors including new guidelines aligned with the No Child Left Behind Act and learning activities and strategies for K-12 students, teachers, and parents. The Elementary School Counseling Demonstration Act (1995) was the first major legislative departure from the emphasis on career guidance. This act provided $20 million to assist schools to provide greater access to counseling services and to create a more positive ratio of counselors to students.

The Latter Decades of the 20th Century (cont.)
By the beginning of the 21st century, the Elementary School Counseling Demonstration Act expanded to secondary schools and provided grants to school districts who demonstrate the greatest need for counseling services or propose the most innovative program. The need for and support of school counseling is evident in the No Child Left Behind Act (2002). Areas targeted include drop-out prevention, career counseling, drug/alcohol counseling, and dealing with children who are neglected and delinquent, among others.

Future Issues and the Professional School Counselor
Herr (1998, p ) has suggested the following as pivotal concerns for the future of school counseling: Formulating a comprehensive school counseling program to address the needs of all students, not just a selected group. Making sure school counseling programs are systematically planned and longitudinal in scope. Are counseling programs focused on a selected group of at-risk students or students with special needs or is the focus on the entire student population? Professional school counselors should utilize resources around them, such as teachers, parents, and outside groups, as part of their delivery system. Therefore, they will be free to deal with student problems requiring responsive services.

Future Issues and the Professional School Counselor (cont.)
Whether the focus of counselors is on a particular student subpopulation (such as college-bound students) or on offering a range of interventions to a variety of students. The use of counselors either as specialists or to deal with the whole person. Which is the best method of delivery of information? Should all information be given to students through individual counseling or would group work or guidance curricula disseminate the information more efficiently and evenly to students. What duties of a professional school counselor should be emphasized and which should be eliminated? Also, what responsibilities should a counselor be held accountable for.

Future Issues and the Professional School Counselor (cont.)
The degree to which the professional school counselor has a reasonable student load of 250 or less in order to know students as individuals and provide personal attention. Professional school counselors should be statespersons for the field, able to interpret goals, develop skills, and communicate the added value they represent to positive student development and the mission of the school.

Traditional and Emerging Roles and Practices
Realizations Guiding the Transformation of the Professional School Counselor’s Role: Professional school counselors receive the most extensive specialized training in consultation, collaboration and team relationship building. Professional school counselors can’t do it all! Caseloads are increasing as are serious psychological problems among students. Counselors should take the initiative, then partner with students, teachers, and community organizations for support.

Traditional and Emerging Roles and Practices (cont.)
3) Well-orgnized and well-run comprehensive developmental school counseling programs work very well and are greatly needed in today’s schools. 4) Since all professional school counselors have strengths and weaknesses, they may all provide varying quality levels of service to varying populations. 5) Many students are not getting what they need from our educational and mental health systems.

Roles of the Professional School Counselor: Professional: School counselors are representatives of the profession, ethical practitioners, aware of the history and future of the profession, and maintain membership in professional organizations. Agent of Diversity and Multicultural Sensitivity: The multicultural counseling movement is helping professional school counselors lead the way toward a more diverse, tolerant, and sensitive educational environment. Advocate for Social Justice: Counselors have an ethical responsibility to help students minimize or eliminate barriers to educational performance and career and personal-social development.

Roles (cont.) Developmental Classroom Guidance Specialist: As part of a comprehensive developmental guidance program, counselors prepare, provide, and evaluate instruction in the classroom. Provider of Individual and Group Counseling Services: Professional literature for school counselors is addressing changes in the needs of students today, which require a different approach. Career Development and Educational Planning Specialist: School reform and accountability movements require school counselors to focus on academic performance and achievement.

Roles (cont.) School and Community Agency Consultation/Collaboration Specialist: School counselors work hand-in-hand with parents, individuals, and organizations. School Reform and Accountability Expert: Outcomes research and results evaluation of school counseling services and activities help determine the program’s effectiveness. Safe Schools, Violence Prevention, At-Risk Specialist: With conflict and violence on the rise in today’s schools, developmental and intervention components of the school counseling’s program need to address these issues. Advocate for Students with Special Needs: School counselors are sometimes the lone advocates for children with special needs and are responsible for finding the right avenues to serve this population.

Chapter Three The ASCA National Model
Developing a Comprehensive, Developmental School Counseling Program

The ASCA National Standards
The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) published the National Standards for School Counseling Programs in 1997. The ASCA National Standards were created to: Provide school counselors with a framework for how to develop and implement a comprehensive, developmental program. Help shape the identity of professional school counselors.

The ASCA National Model
Building upon the ASCA National Standards, leaders in the school counseling profession developed the ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs. The ASCA National Model serves as an exemplar to guide school counselors in how to implement the National Standards in their schools. The national model’s framework exhorts school counselors to address the needs of all students, rather than a select few.

The ASCA National Model
The ASCA National Model is comprised of four overarching components and four fundamental themes. Components: foundation, delivery, management, and accountability. Themes: leadership, advocacy, systemic change, and collaboration/teaming.

Themes of the ASCA National Model
Leadership Professional school counselors strive to: Close the achievement gap. Ensure that all students have access to challenging academic coursework. Enact system-wide changes.

Advocacy Professional school counselors strive to: Assess the needs of the student population. Address the needs of all students. Remove any barriers to student success. Set high expectations for student achievement.

Systemic Change Professional school counselors strive to: Identify areas in need of improvement through data-driven programming. Advocate for school-wide changes (e.g., instructional practices, school philosophy, policies, procedures) to help increase student achievement.

Collaboration/Teaming Professional school counselors strive to: Work collaboratively with stakeholders (i.e, parents, teachers, administrators, community organizations) to meet the needs of all students. Develop effective working relationships with stakeholders.

Program Foundation Addresses the “what” of the school counseling program. Outlines what every student should know and be able to do as a result of the school counseling program. Includes standards and competencies in the three school counseling domains: academic, career, and personal-social.

Program Foundation Includes the school counseling program’s philosophy and mission statement. Philosophy: A set of beliefs about education and the ability of students to learn that provides a vision for the program (should be created in conjunction with stakeholders). Mission Statement: Describes the overarching goals of the program and is aligned with the individual school’s and school system’s missions.

Delivery System Addresses the “how” of the school counseling program.
Includes the following elements: guidance curriculum, individual student planning, responsive services, and systems support. Components of the delivery system can include both direct and indirect services. Direct services: individual counseling, small group counseling, and classroom guidance. Indirect services: support direct services.

Delivery System: Guidance Curriculum
Provides preventative services to large groups: Classrooms Parent workshops Peer helper programs Large events (i.e., senior events) Transition orientation for new students Usually delivered by the professional school counselor or a classroom teacher in consultation with the counselor. Classroom guidance units are age-appropriate, sequential, and usually centered around a topic or theme.

Delivery System: Individual Student Planning
Encourages school counselors to: Help students, individually or in small groups, plan and monitor their academic progress. Use test information and other data to help students set and achieve immediate (e.g., course selection) and long-term (e.g., college, career) goals.

Delivery System: Responsive Services
Includes: Individual counseling Group counseling Consultation Referral Crisis response Peer facilitation

Individual counseling: Meets both reactive and proactive student needs. Professional school counselor’s should not counsel so many students individually that the rest of the student body is shortchanged.

Group counseling: Meets both reactive and proactive student needs. Often offered throughout the school-year to help students who have common needs through explorations of their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and feelings. Is time and cost-efficient. Outcome research has indicated that group counseling can be effective, in particular when it targets academic or personal development issues.

Consultation: An indirect service. Involves collaboration with stakeholders to help address students’ needs. A process of directly working with a second party (consultee) to help a third party (the student). Goal of consultation: to help consultees learn information or improve skills that will enable them to interact more effectively with others.

The consultation process: Identify a purpose. Establish a goal. Plan strategies to meet the goal. Assign responsibilities to carry out the goal.

Referral Involves obtaining the help of other professionals (e.g., school psychologist, school social worker, community agency) to meet students’ needs. Crisis Response Involves responding to acute situations that require immediate intervention. Often includes individuals and resources beyond the professional school counselor. Purpose: to diffuse a situation, initiate a healing process, and assist community members affected by a situation.

Peer Facilitation Training students (often called peer helpers) to use helping skills to assist other students. Empowers students and teaches them important leadership skills.

Delivery System: Systems Support
Provides support in the administration and management of the school counseling program. Includes: program management and operations, data analysis, professional development, consultation, collaboration, and teaming.

Program Management and Operations The administrative and planning tasks needed to create and deliver school counseling activities. Data Analysis Analyzing student data. Program evaluation.

Professional Development In-service training. Postgraduate education. Membership in professional associations. Consultation, Collaboration, and Teaming Partnering with parents, teachers, and community agencies. Parent outreach. Participating on committees and advisory councils.

Management System Addresses the “when,” “why,” and “on what authority” of the school counseling program. Includes: management agreements, advisory council, use of data, action plans, program calendar, and distinctions between appropriate and inappropriate uses of time.

Management System Management Agreements:
Documents who is responsible for various aspects of the school counseling program. Advisory Council: The School Counseling Program Advisory Committee (SCPAC) Serves as a sounding board and steering committee: helps locate funding, make recommendations, and review accountability measures and data. Should convene at least twice each year. Should include influential members and decision-makers (e.g., principal, school administrators). Influential parents, teachers, resource persons (e.g., school psychologist, school social worker), and community leaders should be invited to join.

Management System Use of Data Action Plans
Collect and disaggregate data to identify systemic issues that interfere with equity in achievement. Monitor student progress. Action Plans Detail strategies for achieving an important outcome. Two types of action plans: school guidance curriculum action plans and closing the gap action plans.

Management System Calendars Use of Time
Weekly, monthly, and annual calendars can be used to: Plan for essential elements of the school counseling program. Advertise events and services. Demonstrate a school counselor’s work to the principal. Use of Time Encourages professional school counselors to use time logs to determine how much time they spend providing various services. Details both appropriate and inappropriate uses of time for school counselors.

Management System Appropriate Activities Inappropriate Activities
Designing individual student academic programs. Registering and scheduling all new students. Counseling students with excessive tardiness or absenteeism. Signing excuses for students who are tardy or absent. Counseling students with disciplinary problems. Performing disciplinary actions. Collaborating with teachers to present guidance curriculum lessons. Teaching classes when teachers are absent. Interpreting student records. Maintaining student records. Ensuring that records are kept in accordance with state and federal regulations. Clerical record keeping. Assisting the school principal in identifying and resolving student issues. Assisting with duties in the principal’s office.

Accountability System
Answers the question: “How are students different as a result of the program?” Includes: results reports, performance standards, and performance audits. Results Reports: Outcomes assessments that document changes (i.e., academic performance changes as a result of participation in a study-skills group).

Accountability System
Performance Standards: All local and job expectations to help assess one’s skill in implementing a comprehensive, developmental school counseling program. Performance Audits: Conducted to ensure that the school counseling program aligns with some set of standards.

Roles of Other School Personnel in the School Counseling Program
The counselor is but one player in a team effort. Teachers: Can serve as valuable allies, as well as referral sources for children in need of counseling services. Must be properly prepared and motivated to help students meet the school counseling program’s competencies. Failure to establish positive working relationships with teachers can affect access to that teachers’ students and limit a counselor’s ability to implement the classroom guidance curriculum.

Roles of Other School Personnel in School Counseling Program
Resource Teachers: Possess special expertise that make them invaluable consultants and referral sources. Connecting with these teachers ensures that all students receive the benefit of the school counseling program. Principals and Assistant Principals: Contribute to many important facets of the school counseling program, such as facilitating a needs assessment and program evaluation. Defend the counselor from role diffusion and non-counseling activities.

School Psychologists: Help address the needs of a school’s most serious cases. School Social Workers: Invaluable sources of information on families and communities. Serve as liaisons between the school and public health facilities.

School Nurses: A valuable ally to school counselors on developmental matters (i.e., hygiene, personal safety, and physical and sexual development). Can serve as referral and information sources. Secretaries: Often among the first to encounter parents and students in crisis. The manner in which secretaries respond to situations speaks volumes about the school climate.

Conclusion The ASCA National Model has provided a unified identify for the profession and improved the delivery of services. Professional school counselors must work in partnership with stakeholders and other school personnel to best meet students’ diverse needs.

Outcomes Research on School Counseling Interventions and Programs
Chapter Four Outcomes Research on School Counseling Interventions and Programs

Introduction Although professional school counselors may believe certain approaches are effective, others, such as school board members, administrators, parents, and legislators, want documented evidence of the effectiveness of school counseling. Many of these individuals not only want confirmation that school counseling services are beneficial to students, but also that these services are cost effective.

Introduction The U.S. Department of Education made it a goal to transform education into an evidence-based field. Outcome research in professional school counseling analyzes whether school counseling programs or components of a program result in positive outcomes for students.

Introduction Counselors are ethically bound to provide the effective services to their clients, and without thorough knowledge of the research, counselors will not know what has been shown to be the “best.”

Is Professional School Counseling Effective?
School counseling outcomes research is generally based on qualitative reviews and meta-analytic techniques. Results from qualitative reviews are generally supportive about the effectiveness of school counseling. Substantial impact on educational and personal development. If results from meta-analytic results are coalesced there is support that school counseling interventions are moderately to highly effective. Results from both qualitative and meta-analytic techniques are based on a limited number of studies.

Which students benefit from school counseling interventions?
Effectiveness of school counseling at different school levels is somewhat mixed and is probably related to differences in interventions used at different levels. Who uses school-based counseling services most often? African American students Students who display early onset mental health and educational problems Students who possess externalizing or educational difficulties African American males were more likely to seek school counseling to help with academic achievement than White students.

Which students benefit? (cont)
It is less important to figure out who benefits than how professional school counselors can deliver a school counseling program effectively to all students.

What Are Effective Methods for Delivering School Counseling Programs?
Professional school counselors must implement a comprehensive school counseling program for all students that is a systematic component of the larger school’s purpose and mission.

Guidance Curriculum Although much of the research is on elementary guidance curriculum, it seems middle school students benefited most from guidance curriculum offerings with an effect size of .46. High school students benefited with effect size of .39. Elementary students benefited with an effect size of .31.

Guidance Curriculum (cont)
Elementary counselors primarily used the guidance curriculum to address personal/affective needs. Elementary guidance lessons which focused on improving self-esteem and self-concept had limited impact on students’ self-esteem. Schlossberg, Morris, and Lieberman (2001) found that counselor-led, developmental guidance units presented in 9th grade classrooms have the potential to improve students' expressed behavior and general school attitudes, while also addressing student developmental needs.

Individual Student Planning
Only 10 studies of individual planning have been conducted, mostly with high school students. Overall weighted effect size was statistically significant. Professional school counselors often design individual planning around educational and career/vocational planning.

Individual Student Planning (cont)
Parents and students indicate that they would like more emphasis on career guidance and development activities. Meta-analyses differ somewhat on the degree to which career interventions are effective. The first meta-analysis (Oliver & Spokane, 1988) indicated career interventions were highly effective, whereas the meta-analysis of more current research (Whiston et al., 1998) found career interventions to be moderately effective.

Individual Student Planning (cont)
A recent study found that “counselor-free” interventions are not effective, and interventions that involve a counselor are significantly more efficacious (Whiston, Brecheisen, & Stephens, 2003). Whiston et al. (1998) found that career interventions were more effective at the junior/high middle school level than at the high school level. Career development activities seem to be generally effective.

Responsive Services It seems elementary children, in particular, benefit from responsive services. Few findings have been conducted with adolescents.

Individual and Group Counseling
Group interventions seemed to be more effective than individual counseling, however few studies have been conducted of the effectiveness of individual counseling. Littrell, Malia, and Vanderwood (1995) concluded that three approaches to brief individual counseling were effective with secondary students. In a meta-analysis of the effects of school-based programs on aggressive behavior, Wilson, Lipsey, and Derson (2003) found that behavioral counseling approaches showed the largest effects.

Individual and Group Counseling (cont)
A substantial number of studies verified the positive effects of group counseling interventions. Support for group counseling was mostly found with elementary students. Much more research needs to be conducted with secondary students.

Peer Mediation Although many studies indicated that those who participated in peer mediation programs have substantial knowledge of the program, they did not indicate the effectiveness on reducing conflict. Wilson et al. (2003) found that peer mediation programs had a small impact on reducing aggressive behavior. There does not seem to be conclusive empirical support for peer mediation programs.

Bullying Programs In recent studies of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, Olweus (2005) found reductions in bullying behavior which approached around 50%. Some of the initial studies of the implementations of the Bullybusters program found a 20% reduction in the number of bullying incidents reported in the first year. In a study of the effectiveness of the PeaceBuilders program, Flannery et al. noted significantly higher ratings of social competence among K-2 students who received the intervention and moderately higher levels of social competence for students receiving the intervention in grades 3-5.

Parent Education and Family Counseling
Many studies indicate that parent and educational family counseling is extremely effective. There is some evidence that with low achieving and underachieving students, the effectiveness of counseling is significantly related to the amount of parental involvement in the process. This is an important time for professional school counselors to take a role in parent education and family counseling.

System Support There is growing empirical support for the effectiveness of consultation activities. Consultation can lead to more students being referred for school counseling.

Does a Fully Implemented School Counseling Program Make a Difference?
According to Lapan, Gysbers, and Sun (1997),students from schools with more fully implemented programs were more likely to report that: (a) they had earned higher grades; (b) their education better prepared them for the future; (c) they had more career and college information available to them; and (d) their schools had a more positive environment. Many other studies showed consistent results.

Does a Fully Implemented School Counseling Program Make a Difference?
Schools with higher counselor-to-student ratios were more likely to have higher numbers of students with recurring disciplinary problems. There is increasing research that demonstrates that lower professional school counselor-to-student ratios positively influence a number of student outcomes.

Conclusion Reviews of outcomes research in professional school counseling generally indicate that school counseling activities have a positive effect on students. More research needs to be conducted about the effectiveness of professional school counseling.

Ethical, Legal, and Professional Issues in School Counseling
Chapter Five Ethical, Legal, and Professional Issues in School Counseling

Professional Associations and Credentialing Organizations
1. American Counseling Association (ACA) ACA’s mission is to enhance the quality of life in society by promoting the development of professional counselors, advancing the counseling profession, and using the profession and practice of counseling to promote respect for human dignity and diversity. ACA contains 19 divisions. It influences all aspects of professional counseling through programs, committees, and functions (i.e., credentialing of counselors, accreditation of counselor education programs, ethical standards, professional development, professional resources and services, and public policy and legislation). ACA has 15 committees, including an Ethics Committee which is responsible for updating ethical standards and investigating ethical complaints. ACA covers current research, professional practices, and other pertinent information regarding counseling. ACA produces a monthly newsletter called Counseling Today. ACA’s Webpage is .

2. American School Counselors Association (ASCA) ASCA is a semiautonomous division of ACA and addresses school counseling issues. ASCA targets its efforts toward professional development, publications and other resources, research, and advocacy specifically for school counselors.

3. National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) NBCC is the only national credentialing organization for professional counselors. The National Counselor Exam (NCE) must be passed as part of the process for becoming nationally certified. The NCE is frequently used by states for professional counselor licensure or certification.

4. The Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) CACREP is a corporate partner of ACA. CACREP is responsible for establishing state-of-the-art standards for counselor education programs. CACREP standards address program objectives and curricula, faculty and staff requirements, program evaluation, and other requirements for accreditation. Students who graduate from CACREP programs are usually in an advantageous position to be hired because their programs include 48 graduate credit hours and 700 hours of field placement.

Ethical Standards and Laws
Differences Between Standards and Laws Standards Developed by professional associations to guide the behavior of a specific group of professionals. Ethical standards serve the purpose of educating members about ethical conduct, provide a mechanism for accountability, and serve as a means for improving professional practice. Updated periodically to ensure relevance. Based on generally accepted norms, beliefs, customs, and values. Laws Laws are more prescriptive. They have been incorporated into code, and carry greater penalties for failure to comply.

Ethical Standards and Laws
Similarities Between Standards and Laws Both exist to encourage appropriate behavior to provide for the best interests of the client. Both concern behaving in an appropriate professional manner, practicing within the scope of one’s education, training and experience. Because there are penalties associated with laws, the counselor will generally follow the legal guidelines if there is no harm to the client.

ACA Code of Ethics Revised August, 2005.
Aspirational ethics (i.e., standards of practice) have been incorporated into the body of the Code of Ethics and are no longer a separate section. Each section now has an introduction. Several new issues and a glossary have been added.

ACA Code of Ethics 5 Main Purposes:
1. Enables ACA to clarify to current and future members, and those served by members, the nature of the ethical responsibilities held in common by its members. 2. Helps support the mission of ACA. 3. Establishes principles that define ethical behavior and best practices of association members. 4. Ethical guide to assist members in constructing a professional course of action that best serves those using counseling services and best promotes the values of the counseling profession. 5. Serves as the basis of processing ethical complaints and inquiries initiated against members of the association.

ACA Code of Ethics The ACA’s Code of Ethics is based on Kitchener’s five more principles: Autonomy refers to the concept of independence and the ability to make one’s own decisions. Justice means treating each person fairly, but it does not mean treating each person in the same way. Beneficence refers to doing what is in the best interests of the client. Nonmaleficence means doing no harm to others. Fidelity involves the concepts of loyalty, faithfulness, and honoring commitments.

ACA Code of Ethics The Code of Ethics is divided into eight areas:
The Counseling Relationship Confidentiality, Privileged Communication and Privacy Professional Responsibility Relationships with Other Professionals Evaluation, Assessment and Interpretation Supervision, Training and Teaching Research and Publication Resolving Ethical Issues

ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors
ASCA developed a set of ethical standards designed specifically for school counseling. These standards contain eight sections, which include responsibilities to students, parents, colleagues and professional associates, as well as responsibilities to the community, self, and profession. A final section addresses maintenance of standards and resources. ASCA’s standards discuss putting the student’s best interests first, treating each student as an individual and with respect, involving parents as appropriate, maintaining one’s expertise through ongoing professional development and learning, and behaving professionally and ethically. Both ACA and ASCA have developed guides to ethical decision making should an ethical dilemma arise.

Ethical Decision Making
The ACA has a model to guide ethical decision making that consists of seven steps: Identify the problem. Apply the ACA Code of Ethics. Determine the nature and dimensions of the dilemma. Generate potential courses of action. Consider the potential consequences of all options. Choose a course of action. Evaluate the selected course of action.

Ethical Decision Making
Remley and Herlihy (2001) suggested four self-tests to consider once a decision has been made to determine whether the decision was ethically sound: Would you treat others this same way if they were in a similar situation? Would you suggest to other counselors this same course of action? Would you be willing to have others know how you acted? Do you have any lingering feelings of doubt or uncertainty about what you did?

Sources of Information and Guidance
Ethical standards have an important function in guiding the behavior of counselors; however, other sources are valuable in maintaining the highest standards of ethical and legal behavior. These other sources include the court system, statutory law, and state and local agencies.

The Court System Counselors are affected by three main types of laws:
1. Statutory law - created by legislatures. 2. Constitutional law - results from court decisions concerning constitutional issues. 3. Common law - results from other court decisions.

Statutory Law Body of mandates created through legislation passed by U.S. Congress and state legislatures. The structure of education and health systems, as well as many of the policies that govern implementation are found within these mandates.

Statutory Law The majority of legislation influencing schools and counselors is passed by state legislatures and concerns two types of legislation: 1. Creating state legislation to implement federal legislation 2. Enacting new state-specific legislation. State laws may be more restrictive than federal legislation, but never less restrictive.

State and Local Agencies
State departments of education have the ability to enact regulations that are binding on the school districts within the state. State agencies develop policies on how to implement a specific law. State agencies may also issue guidelines, which are suggestions about how to address a specific issue. For example, the state attorney general may issue an “advice of counsel” in response to a new court case or law. Local school systems and agencies may develop their own policies, procedures, and guidelines. For example, school systems often take state regulations and rewrite them to reflect their specific situation.

Making Decisions Failure to understand the law is not an acceptable legal defense. The professional school counselor needs to be familiar with sources of ethical information in order to perform job responsibilities. Counselors ordinarily have a supervisor who can help them become familiar with the regulations. When mandates appear to be in conflict, follow the logical course of action and document your actions and why you chose that course of action.

Making Decisions Two issues that are sometimes confusing to counselors are: The differing ways counselors in different settings operate. For example, mental health counselors from outside agencies need to have informed consent for students to participate in various programs. However, schools may not require informed consent. Counselors with multiple credentials. Employees must follow the mandates that apply to their work setting.

Additional Legal Considerations
Counselors have different levels of experience, education, training, values, morals, and spiritual influences. As a result, professional school counselors must be aware of how their beliefs impact the client. The bottom line – ALWAYS TRY TO DO WHAT IS IN THE BEST INTEREST OF THE CLIENT!

Professional Competence
1. Maintain professional growth through continuing education. * Stay current with theories, trends, and information. 2. Maintain accurate knowledge and expertise in areas of responsibility. * Information changes rapidly, so it is paramount to maintain accurate, up-to-date knowledge. 3. Accurately represent credentials. * Counselors who hold doctorates in non-mental health fields should not use the title “doctor” in their work as a counselor. 4. Provide only those services for which you are qualified and trained. * Counselors should have training in a particular technique before using it. In addition, counselors should only work with clients whose problems are within their area of treatment expertise.

Can I Be Sued? YES! Anyone can be sued for anything at any time.
If professional school counselors fail to exercise “due care” in fulfilling their professional responsibilities, they can be found guilty (civil liability). When counselors fail to exercise “due care,” they can be found guilty of negligence. An example of negligence would be a counselor who failed to report an abuse case. The counselor had a duty to the client and failed to fulfill that duty. The “standard of practice” will be used in any liability proceeding to determine the counselor’s performance. The standard of practice question is, “…did the counselor provide the level of care and treatment that is consistent with the degree of learning, skill and ethics expected by reputable counselors practicing under similar circumstances?” The standard of practice is established through the testimony of peers and based on education and experience.

What is Malpractice? Malpractice is professional misconduct or any unreasonable lack of skill in the performance of professional duties. For a counselor to be held liable for malpractice, four conditions must be met. 1. A duty was owed to the plaintiff (client) by the defendant (counselor). 2. The duty was breached. 3. There was a causal link between the breach and the plaintiff’s injury. 4. The client suffered some damage. As an example: If a counselor treating a client with an eating disorder used hypnosis, but was not trained to use hypnosis, malpractice could be claimed.

What is Malpractice? A counselor will usually be found guilty of malpractice if one or more of the following situations occurs: * The practice was not within the realm of acceptable professional practice. * The counselor was not trained in the technique used. * The counselor failed to follow a procedure that would have been more helpful. * The counselor failed to warn and/or protect others from a violent crime. * The counselor failed to obtain informed consent. * The counselor failed to explain the possible consequences of treatment.

Subpoenas The most common reason counselors receive subpoenas are because of cases involving custody disputes, child abuse/neglect allegations, and special education disputes. Under no circumstances should the counselor automatically comply with the subpoena without discussing it first with the client, client’s attorney, and/or employing agency/school system attorney. If both a subpoena and a court order are received, the counselor must release information with or without the client’s consent.

**DO NOT PANIC, BUT DO CONSULT AN ATTORNEY**
Subpoenas According to ACA (1997), counselors should take the following steps when receiving a subpoena: Contact the client or the client’s attorney and ask for guidance. If you work for a school system, contact the school system’s attorney. If the above parties advise you to comply with the subpoena, discuss the implications of releasing the requested information. Obtain a signed informed consent form to release the records. The form should specify all conditions of release. If the decision is made to not release the records, the attorney should file a motion to “quash.” This allows the counselor to not comply with the subpoena. Maintain a record of everything the counselor and attorneys did, keep notes regarding all conversations and copies of any documents pertaining to the subpoena. **DO NOT PANIC, BUT DO CONSULT AN ATTORNEY**

Confidentiality Confidentiality is essential for counseling to be successful. Confidentiality belongs to the client, not to the counselor. The client always has the right to waive confidentiality. Minors have an ethical right to confidentiality, but the legal rights belong to their parents or guardian. At the beginning of the first session of each new counseling relationship, the professional school counselor should discuss confidentiality. For example, discuss what it means and point out the limits.

Limits to Confidentiality
There are several instances in which counselors must break confidentiality. The most important is the “duty to warn.” When the client is in danger of being harmed or is likely to harm someone else, the counselor may break confidentiality and tell the appropriate persons. Exercising a duty to warn was made famous by the 1974 Tarasoff case in California in which a graduate student told his psychologist about his intent to kill a girl who had rejected his advances. The psychologist told the campus police and supervisor, but failed to warn the intended victim or her family.

Several other situations constrain the limits of confidentiality: Subordinates - They should have limited access to information. Treatment teams - The client should be informed of the team and the information being shared. Consultation - The professional school counselor has a right to consult with a colleague or supervisor. Group/family counseling - Because there is more than one client in the room, it is impossible to guarantee confidentiality.

Third-party payers - The counselor should disclose information to third-party payers only with the client’s permission. Minors - Numerous minor consent laws apply and vary across states. Contagious, life-threatening diseases - The counselor is justified in breaking confidentiality if a third party’s relationship with the client involves the possibility of contracting the disease and the client does not plan on telling the third party. Court-ordered disclosure - Even if ordered to reveal confidential information by a judge, counselors should limit what they reveal to only what is absolutely necessary. 142

Confidentiality and Privileged Communication
Privileged communication is the legal term to describe the privacy of the counselor-client communication. It applies only to testifying in a court of law. The privilege belongs to the client, who always has the right to waive the privilege and allow the counselor to testify. It is essential that counselors become familiar with their local mandates and policies for determining the extent to which privileged communication applies to their situation.

Minor Consent Laws Minor consent laws allow certain minors to seek treatment for certain conditions, usually involving substance abuse, mental health, and some reproductive health areas. These laws are based on the federal regulation 42 CFR Part 2. The law prohibits the release of these records to anyone without the client’s informed consent and includes clients under the age of 18 years, even if they are in school and living with a parent/guardian.

Minor Consent Laws Students suspected of having a substance abuse problem can be referred to school-based student assistance programs (SAPs). If the team believes the student has a substance abuse problem, they can have the student assessed and referred for appropriate assistance. However, there is some controversy surrounding the role of parents in this process. Under federal law, the student can be referred and complete treatment without the parent’s/guardian’s knowledge. As a result, states have taken different approaches in deciding to whom this law applies. In general, the patient must be old enough to understand the problem, the treatment options, and the consequences

Minor Consent Laws According to the Guttmacher Institute:
25 states and DC allow all minors to consent to contraceptive services. 21 states allow minors to consent to contraceptive services in one or more circumstances. 4 states have no minor consent law for contraceptive services. 30 states allow minors to consent to prenatal treatment when pregnant, while 20 have no law. All 50 states allow minors to consent to treatment for STDs and HIV/AIDS. 44 states allow minor consent for drug abuse treatment.

Minor Consent Laws 20 states allow minor consent outpatient mental health services, 29 do not. 22 states allow minor consent for general medical care, and 29 do not. 3 states allow minor consent for abortion services, 30 require parental consent or notification and 18 states have no law. THERE IS TREMENDOUS VARIATION BETWEEN THE 50 STATES IN WHAT IS PERMISSABLE UNDER LAW. Laws clearly cover medical personnel, therefore a school nurse is covered but a school counselor or school psychologist may not be covered.

Minor Consent Laws It is critical that professional school counselors and other student services personnel become familiar with the minor consent laws in the state in which they work to ensure compliance. Counselors should not wait until they are faced with a situation to figure out where they stand on an issue. For example, parents may be angry when they discover they were not informed of their children’s substance abuse treatment or that their child has a sexually transmitted disease and the counselor knew and did not notify them of the situation.

Educational Records and FERPA
Educational records are all the records of a student’s achievement, attendance, behavior, testing, school activities, and other information the school collects. The inspection, dissemination, and access to student educational records must be in accordance with the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974, also known as the Buckley Amendment. The first provision requires schools/systems annually to send a notice to parents/guardians regarding their right to review their children’s records and to file a complaint if they disagree with anything in the record.

Educational Records and FERPA
Second, the law limits who may access records and specifies what information can be disclosed without informed consent.

Educational Records and the Hatch Amendment
The Hatch Amendment of 1978: Requires informed parent consent before the student undergoes any psychological, psychiatric, or medical examination, testing or treatment, or any school program designed to affect the personal values or behavior of the student. Gives parents the right to review instructional materials in experimental programs. Requires informed consent for all studies that are funded with federal money.

Revealing Educational Records to Various Individuals
Parents - Unless there is a court order in the child’s file that limits or terminates the rights of one or both parents, both parents have the same access to the child’s records. Stepparents and other family members - Have no legal right to the student’s records without court appointed authority. Outside Agencies - May not access records of any student without the signed consent of the parent. School Team Meetings - Local policies dictate whether signed informed consent is needed to share information at school team meetings.

Personal Notes Personal notes are notes written by professional school counselors to serve as an extension of their memories. They are an impression of the client or session. Notes must remain “in the sole possession of the maker” and cannot be shared with anyone except “a substitute maker”. These notes must remain separate from the educational records and kept in a secure place. It is preferable to keep the notes separate and not tell anyone they exist, even if the information is of no particular interest.

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996
Required the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to adopt national standards for the privacy of individually identifiable health information, outlined patients’ rights, and established criteria for access to health records. Required the adoption standards for electronic health care transactions. School systems need to address any potential conflicts between FERPA and HIPAA.

Child Abuse The 1974 Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act has been revised and renamed Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003. Every health practitioner, educator, human services worker, and law enforcement officer must report suspected abuse or neglect, generally within hours of first “having reason to suspect.” It is pertinent that the first person who suspects the abuse or neglect call Child Protective Services. The oral report must be followed by a written report. There is no liability for reporting, unless done with malicious intent.

Child Abuse Parents/guardians have no right to information during this process. The school making the report should not inform the parents that a report has been made. Social services and law enforcement are responsible for contacting the parent and conducting the investigation.

Suicide The Eisel case in Maryland changed the standard for reporting suicide threats. This case involved two middle school students who became involved in Satanism and were obsessed with death. Friends of one of the girls, Nicole Eisel, went to their professional school counselor and informed her that Eisel was going to commit suicide. Their counselor consulted with Nicole’s counselor. Both professional school counselors spoke with Eisel who denied thinking about killing herself. Shortly thereafter, Nicole’s friend shot and killed Nicole Eisel, then herself.

Suicide Court Conclusion:
Professional school counselors have a duty to use reasonable means to prevent a suicide. As a result of this case, professional school counselors (in MD) must always tell the parent whenever there is any indication from a child or someone else that the child is thinking about suicide, regardless of the seriousness of the threat. They must also inform the principal.

Summary/Conclusion Due to the constantly changing issues encountered by professional school counselors, here are a few guidelines to follow when dealing with ethical issues. 1. Always document in writing what you did and why you did it. 2. If you did not follow a policy, document why you did not. 3. Know federal, state, and local laws, regulations, policies, and guidelines. 4. Consult with a colleague or supervisor when you have questions or doubts. 5. Read and use resources. 6. Consult with a lawyer when appropriate.

Chapter Six Culturally Competent School Counselors: Affirming Diversity by Challenging Oppression

Introduction Based on the U.S.’s rapidly changing demographics, multiculturalism, as a key component of the school counseling profession, is no longer viewed as just desirable, but mandatory. It is not clear whether professional school counselors are effective in their work with students from oppressed backgrounds. Some research has suggested that professional school counselors maintain a status quo of educational outcomes for minority students.

Cross/Multicultural Counseling
The facilitation of human development through the understanding and appreciation of cultural diversities. ASCA recognizes cultural diversities as important factors deserving increased awareness and understanding on the part of all school personnel, especially the professional school counselor.

According to the 2004 revision of the ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors, a professional school counselor: Affirms the diversity of students, staff, and families. Expands and develops awareness of his/her own attitudes and beliefs affecting cultural values and biases and strives to attain cultural competence. Possesses knowledge and understanding about how oppression, racism, discrimination and stereotyping affects her/him personally and professionally. Acquires educational, consultation, and training experiences to improve awareness, knowledge, skills, and effectiveness in working with diverse populations: ethnic/racial status, age, economic status, special needs, ESL or ELL, immigration status, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity/expression, family type, religious/spiritual identity and appearance. (ASCA, 2004, p. 4)

Multicultural and Anti-Oppression Terminology
Culture is defined in a variety of ways: (1) the ways in which people perceive their experiences of the world so as to give it structure; (2) the beliefs by which people explain events; (3) a set of principles for dealing with people as well as for accomplishing particular ends; and (4) people’s value systems for establishing purposes and for keeping themselves purposefully oriented.

Race Race is a term that has been defined in various ways:
Behavioral scientists explain that race has been used to denote genotypically homogeneous human groupings (Kluckhohn, 1985). Baba and Darga (1981), indicate that defining race through the practice of racial classification by biological characteristics is practically impossible. In counseling and psychology, race has been used in three main ways: (a) differential sociopolitical and economic socialization; (b) biogenetic psychological characteristics inferred from the presence of observable “signs” commonly assumed to be racial; and (c) differential cultural (e.g., values, beliefs, rituals) socialization (Helms, 1996).

Race Professional school counselors must remember that race has been used in schools to carry out: segregation, stereotyping groups of students’ academic achievement, tracking, selection of students for special education, and lowering teacher expectations for ethnic minority students.

Ethnicity Defined by Schaefer (1990, p. 27) as “a group set apart from others because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns.” It is within this ethnic identity that an individual is socialized to take on the group’s values, beliefs, and behaviors. McGoldrick and Giordano (1996) referred to ethnicity as: “A common ancestry through which individuals have evolved shared values and customs. It is deeply tied to the family, through which it is transmitted. ...The concept of a group’s “peoplehood” is based on a combination of race, religion, and cultural history and is retained, whether or not members realize their commonalities with one another. The consciousness of ethnic identity varies greatly within groups and from one group to another.” (pp. 1–2)

Oppression Oppression can be defined in an equation: Oppression = prejudice x power. Maintaining incorrect conscious or unconscious attitudes, feelings, and beliefs about members of a cultural group as inferior or about that group’s cultural differences is unacceptable. Young (1990) further expanded the definition of oppression by delineating five conditions of an oppressed group: exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism, and violence. Other forms of oppression: individual, cultural, systemic, internalized, and externalized oppression.

Oppression Professional school counselors can find evidence of oppression in K-12 school data. Achievement gaps are the differences in academic performance among groups of K-12 students based on ethnicity/race, gender, social class, disability status, language status, and other variables. Opportunity gaps are the differences in resources given to K-12 students. Attainment gaps are the differences among groups who attain particular status in schools (e.g., graduation, college admission) based on data disaggregated by ethnicity/race, gender, etc.

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling
Definitions: Locke (1990) referred to multicultural counseling as a counseling relationship in which the counselor and client differ as a result of socialization in unique cultural, racial or ethnic environments. Vontress (1988) noted that if the counselor and client perceive themselves as culturally similar, even if the opposite is true, then it should not be considered cross-cultural counseling. CACREP: Views multicultural counseling from a universal perspective and includes characteristics of not only race and ethnicity, but also gender, lifestyle, religion, sexual orientation, etc. (CACREP, 2009). CACREP’s definition further emphasizes the implication of a pluralistic philosophy.

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling
More recently, the terms social justice counseling and social justice perspective have been used in the literature instead of multicultural counseling. Social justice counseling addresses issues related to both individual and distributive justice. It involves the promotion of equity, access, participation, and harmony. Professional school counselors should shift to a more social justice perspective in order to challenge the achievement inequities found in many schools.

Multicultural Competence
S. Sue (1998) suggested that cultural competence consists of three characteristics: Being scientifically minded Having skills in dynamic sizing Being proficient with a particular cultural group When does one know he or she is multiculturally competent? When a counselor possesses the necessary skills to work effectively with clients from different cultural backgrounds, and acknowledges client-counselor cultural differences and similarities are significant to the counseling process.

Multicultural Competence (cont.)
Three main areas or dimensions: Awareness: stresses the understanding of personal worldviews and how counselors are products of their own cultural conditioning. Knowledge: reinforces the importance of understanding the worldviews of culturally different clients. Skills: deals with the process of actively developing and practicing appropriate intervention strategies for culturally diverse clients. Counselors must understand the client’s worldview and actively develop and practice appropriate intervention strategies needed for work with culturally different clients.

The Need for Culturally Competent Professional School Counselors
Need to close attainment, achievement, opportunity, and funding gaps among groups of students in K-12 schools. Need to increase numbers of college bound students from various cultures. Need to represent students of various cultures in Advanced Placement and accelerated courses.

Integrating Multicultural and Antioppression Topics in School Counseling Programs
Professional school counselors can play a pivotal role in combating oppression and assisting culturally diverse students achieve success, but must first realize the cross-cultural limits of traditional school counseling. Most counselors lack specific training to deal with the problems and effects of oppression. Professional school counselors must engage in interventions that create social environments for students that support social justice. Social justice refers to equity, equality, and fairness in the distribution of societal resources (Flynn, 1995).

Empowerment-Focused Interventions
Empowerment: can be defined as a process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that individuals, families, and communities can take action to improve their situations. It is multidimensional, social, and a process. Can occur at different levels. Similar to a path or journey.

Empowerment-Focused Interventions (cont.)
Critical consciousness has been described as involving three psychological processes: (1) group identification, which includes identifying areas of common experiences and concern with a particular group, (2) group consciousness, which involves understanding the differential status of power of groups in society, and (3) self- and collective efficacy, which is described as perceiving oneself as a subject (rather than object) of social processes and as capable of working to change the social order.

Empowerment-Focused Interventions (cont.)
Professional school counselors can facilitate discussions about one’s group identification and help students understand how their group membership has affected their life circumstances. Provide students with knowledge and skills to think critically about their problems and develop strategies to act on and change problems. Help build on student strengths.

Individual Counseling
Since very few counseling approaches have been designed and validated for use with specific cultural groups, professional school counselors should use and develop individual counseling strategies that are effective with culturally diverse students. Counselors must also be aware of the pervasive influence that culture has on the counseling process. Be aware of the impact of culture on students' ways of thinking, belief systems, definitions of self, decision making, verbal and non-verbal behaviors, and time orientation, which all can have profound effects on behavior.

Group Counseling Professional school counselors must be able to facilitate the cultural development of group members. Counselors must remember students are socialized in a society in which some groups have a history of suffering stereotypes, prejudice, oppression, and discrimination. When composing the group, take cultural differences into account, as well as how the group members will relate to each other and the leader. Be familiar with the literature for selecting and planning culturally diverse groups.

Consultation Be sensitive to the cultural differences between the three parties in the consultation process: consultant, consultee, and client. Ensure that the teacher or parent understands that his/her input is welcomed and in many cases is necessary for the success of the intervention. Do not forget that the student is the focus of the consultee's problem. Focus on conceptualizing the problem or concern of the consultee within a cultural context. Be able to identify and challenge a consultee's stereotypical beliefs and biases.

Assessment Professional school counselors must understand the cultural appropriateness of assessment instruments used frequently in schools. Be able to evaluate instruments for cultural bias and identify other methods for assessing culturally diverse students. Be competent in relaying assessment results to culturally diverse students and parents. Be cognizant of the presence of unjust assessment practices. Be aware of the testing options for English language learners.

School Counseling/Guidance Curriculum
Professional school counselors can help students become more culturally sensitive by implementing classroom school counseling curriculum lessons focused on: affirming differences, accurate multicultural terminology, exploring one's biases, learning about ethnic/racial identity development models, understanding diverse world views, and challenging the various oppressions.

School Counseling/Guidance Curriculum
Some suggested activities include: giving students case studies of students dealing with racism, discussing the dangers of stereotypes, interviewing a friend or family member about his/her experience with prejudice, inviting guest speakers from the community to discuss their personal ethnic/racial/cultural histories, and having students do a family history on the oppression of their ancestors.

School Counseling Program Coordination
Be sensitive to the diverse needs of those persons inside the school and in the community. Professional school counselors should coordinate school-wide programs relevant to the needs of all students, particularly those from culturally diverse backgrounds. Take the time to meet and develop relationships with referral sources that are representative of their school's communities. Be familiar with services offered both in ethnic/racial communities and in the larger community.

Data Collection and Sharing
Helps highly diverse schools "identify achievement gaps, address equity issues, determine the effectiveness of specific programs and courses of study, and target instructional improvement" (Lachat, 2002, p. 3). Helps ensure every student receives the benefits of the school counseling program. Must work with administrators, faculty and advisory council members to analyze data in order to create a current picture of students and the school environment.

Data Collection and Sharing (cont.)
Professional school counselors monitor student progress through four types of data: Achievement data, which measures students’ academic progress. Attainment data, which measures those factors that the literature has shown to be correlated to academic achievement. School culture data, which includes data regarding attendance, suspensions and expulsions, faculty-to-student relationships, school climate, student attitudes, and drop out rates. Standards- and competency-related data, which measure student mastery of the competencies delineated in the ASCA National Model (2005).

Increasing School Counselor Multicultural Competence
Five ways in which professional school counselors can increase their level of multicultural competence: Investigate one’s own cultural or ethnic heritage; Attend workshops, seminars, and conferences on multicultural and diversity issues; Join organizations that are focused on multicultural issues; Read literature written by ethnic minority authors or about ethnic cultures; Become familiar with multicultural education literature.

Case Studies Another step in the process of developing multicultural counseling competence is for professional school counselors to openly question their thoughts and behaviors when working with ethnic minority students. Professional school counselors can use case studies as a means to begin discussions with colleagues.

Summary/Conclusions Critical need for multicultural school counselors.
Must continue on the journey of developing multicultural competence in counseling. Acquire the knowledge and skills that will allow one to critically assess and intelligently address the various challenges encountered by students and their families.

Leadership and Achievement Advocacy for Every Student
Chapter Seven Leadership and Achievement Advocacy for Every Student

“At Promise” instead of “At Risk”
School counseling programs that use a strengths-based, “nondeficient” leadership and advocacy model are educational leaders providing measurable equity, achievement results, and success for all students. Professional school counselors who develop and implement transformative school counseling programs based on the ASCA National Model strive to empower and advocate for historically oppressed populations. The transformed professional school counselor leads and advocates in removing barriers to student performance and overcoming social injustice.

Achievement and Access Gaps
Achievement gaps are the disparity in academic performance found among different groups of students based on ethnicity/race, gender, ability/disability, social class, and language status. Access (opportunity) gaps are the disparity in who receives school counseling programs, services, high-level college preparatory curriculum, honors courses, Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate coursework, college counseling, and the best teachers, and who does not.

Achievement and Access Gaps (cont.)
Achievement, access, attainment (who graduates from college with a diploma and who does not by cultural and economic group), and funding gaps (who gets the most money from schools based on tax levels and who gets the least) exist between students of color and white students as well as between students from low-income families and students from middle- and upper-income families. Professional school counselors must work to try to close these gaps to help all students succeed.

Research Shows…. Students from low-income families can match the achievement of high-income families “stride for stride” and in some school districts actually outperform students from affluent families.

Common Characteristics
Successful high-poverty schools demonstrate the following characteristics: Extensive use of state/local standards to design curriculum and instruction, assess student work, and evaluate teachers. Increased instruction time for math and reading. Substantial investment in professional development for teachers. Comprehensive systems to help students before they fail. Parental involvement. Accountability systems with consequences.

The Professional School Counselor’s Role
Counselors should be involved with the use of state and local standards to design curriculum and instruction and assess student learning. Counselors can contribute to student learning by integrating their knowledge about student learning styles and modalities. Counselors can also become involved by designing and implementing professional development workshops for teachers, administrators, and parents. Also, counselors should monitor student performance to assist struggling students.

Professional School Counselors as Leaders
Leadership is one of the four overarching themes of the ASCA National Model and is inextricably tied to advocacy. A leader is someone who has a “vision” for change, can communicate that vision effectively to others, and help direct supporters in working toward creating the desired change.

Professional School Counselors as Leaders (cont.)
Bolman and Deal (1997) posited four kinds of leadership: Structural leadership involves creating an organized plan for change, as well as determining how to best put that plan into action. Human resources leadership requires school counselors to empower and motivate others to enact change. Political leadership directly involves changing unfair organizational or systemic structures that are in place. Symbolic leadership involves creating and communicating a vision of change to others to gain supporters and allies.

Rather than waiting for complaints or obvious acts of discrimination, a leader will maintain an ongoing awareness of the school climate so that problems can be identified and remedied proactively using specific data points and intervening with developmental counseling lessons and group and individual counseling strategies. To be a successful leader, school counselors must also build strong alliances and work cooperatively with important stakeholders.

Leadership strategies for new school counselors: Set reasonable and realistic leadership goals Approach tasks with determination Resolve to work through resistance Build a strong support system and seek supervision and support from supervisors and colleagues Be clear about your role as a school counselor

What are Advocacy and Achievement Advocacy?
Advocacy is: The intentional effort to change existing or proposed policies, practices, and learning environments on behalf of all students and families. Achievement advocacy is: Ensuring that high levels of academic, career, college, and personal-social skills are delivered to every K-12 student in a school counseling program with specific results.

History of Advocacy In the early 1970s, Dworkin and Dworkin (1971) issued a call to action for counselors to become leaders in social change rather than sideline cheerleaders. Scholars have indicated that professional school counselors should take a more active role in advocating for all students. Too often, however, professional school counselors become overwhelmed with administrative concerns and therefore only have time to support and maintain an inequitable system.

History of Advocacy (cont.)
House and Martin (1998, p. 284) suggest that professional school counselors instead become “catalysts and leaders focused on removing the institutional barriers that continue to result in an achievement gap between poor and minority youth and their more advantaged peers.”

The Importance of Advocacy: Challenging the Barriers
Society is changing. Integration of various cultures into the school system. Student populations in many public schools across the country have changed. The percentage of students of color, students from low income families, and students who speak English as a second or third language has increased. Becoming sensitive to cross-cultural issues in counseling is an important step for a counselor who hopes to be an advocate for all students.

The Importance of Advocacy: Challenging the Barriers (cont.)
A socially responsive professional school counselor recognizes external oppressive forces built into the social, economic, and political framework of the school and community as potential sources of intervention. Professional school counselors need to advocate for and encourage change within the school community so that all students feel safe and are well-served academically and socially with full access to career and college development information and curricula throughout their K-12 experience.

Advocacy Counseling in Schools
Advocacy counseling involves efforts by professional school counselors to advocate for and with clients on both the microlevel and the macrolevel. On the microlevel, school counselors might advocate on behalf of students within the school systems or teach them self-advocacy skills. On the macrolevel, school counselors might intervene in some larger context (e.g., community) to effect more broad-based change.

ACA Advocacy Competencies
To assist counselors in advocating for and with clients on both the microlevel and macrolevel, four members of the American Counseling Association (ACA) developed the ACA Advocacy Competencies, a document that describes the skills important for counselors to possess to advocate for their clients and students.

ACA Advocacy Competencies (cont.)
There are three domains where counselors can advocate for change: Client/student advocacy School/community advocacy Public arena advocacy There are two levels within each domain, one level involves advocating with a stakeholder or system and another level involves advocating on behalf of a person or system.

Client/Student Advocacy Client/student empowerment involves: Teaching clients self-advocacy skills Helping clients develop a strategy or plan for self-advocacy Assisting clients in becoming knowledgeable and aware of their situations Identifying the skills and assets clients can use in the advocacy process. Client/student advocacy involves direct school counselor endeavors to enact change or secure certain resources for students.

School/Community Advocacy Community collaboration involves teaming up with community organizations to aid them in their advocacy efforts. Systems advocacy involves a more direct effort by counselors to change a system; they will spearhead the effort themselves.

Public Arena Advocacy The public information level involves creating and distributing materials about important topics to the community. Social/political advocacy involves contacting local and state representatives and policy makers to raise awareness about issues and work to create change on a much larger level.

School Counselor Advocacy Competencies
Trusty and Brown (2005) developed advocacy competencies for professional school counselors that include the dispositions, knowledge, and skills necessary to effectively operate as advocates for students, schools, and communities.

School Counselor Advocacy Competencies (cont.)
Four essential school counselor dispositions: Advocacy disposition - welcome the opportunity to be an advocate; willing to work through resistance. Family support/empowerment disposition - recognize the family as a key stakeholder and teach them how to advocate for their children. Social advocacy disposition - advocate on behalf of others when they recognize unfair situations. Ethical disposition - behave in accordance with applicable codes of ethics at all times.

School Counselor Advocacy Competencies (cont.)
School counselors should have knowledge of: How systems work How to resolve conflicts Various advocacy models School counselors should have skills in: Effective communication Collaboration and teaming Problem solving Organization Coping mechanisms

Advocacy Counseling Advocacy may be an arduous process and particularly draining for school counselors who want to be liked by everyone, a phenomenon known as the nice counselor syndrome (NCS). NCS often results in school counselors supporting the current system’s status quo, even when inequities are evident. School counselors must find ways to move beyond the NCS to ensure that all students have access to quality education and opportunities for career and college access K-16.

Advocacy Counseling (cont.)
Strategies to help school counselors become more comfortable advocating: Use data to make a case Connect change efforts to the school’s mission Do not take resistance personally Find supporters Develop a realistic plan based on data and research Act ethically at all times Trust the process

Empowering Students with Achievement Advocacy Skills
Students need an advocate who will recognize when student needs are not being heard or met and when they are being squashed emotionally and intellectually. Professional school counselors should also advocate on behalf of all students, parents and guardians, teachers, and communities. Professional school counselors can help students recognize external barriers that impact their well-being and academic achievement and then assist students in formulating plans to confront these barriers.

Empowering Students with Achievement Advocacy Skills (cont.)
The professional school counselor can assist students in recognizing inequities that exist and by taking action to change practices that are unfair. For example, if a student is placed in a lower level academic class, the professional school counselor can step in and advocate on the student’s behalf and/or advocate alongside the student. Teaching students how to use conflict resolution skills and peer mediation, and assisting students with organizational skills, study skills, and test-taking skills helps them to become advocates.

Empowering Students with Achievement Advocacy Skills (cont.)
Students need to be empowered to become leaders for life in their elementary, middle, and high school communities. Professional school counselors develop leadership academies, peer tutoring and peer counseling programs and encourage and expect all students to participate in extracurricular activities to increase their leadership skills, which, in turn, can provide students with a basis to learn advocacy skills.

Empowering Parents and Guardians with Achievement Advocacy Skills
Parents often take information from school personnel as fact. Professional school counselors assist parents and guardians to maneuver through unfamiliar territories to access services. Professional school counselors can help identify resources and discuss existing services with parents. They can assist parents in understanding and interpreting the information received from the school and their rights. Parents may also need assistance in determining how and when to use the information. Counselors can help parents gain access to needed services.

Empowering Educators With Achievement Advocacy Skills
Assist teachers in recognizing inequities. For example, differential treatment of poor and affluent students, students of color and White students, gifted and average students, and students with and without disabilities. Challenge teachers to examine their biases. Offer annual formal in-service training and frequent informal sessions to increase teacher knowledge and effectiveness.

Empowering Educators With Achievement Advocacy Skills (cont.)
Counselors can assist teachers in developing management, facilitation, and advocacy skills. Provide in-service training on management skills. Help teachers create a safe, equitable, and learner-friendly environment for all students. Help teachers to communicate more effectively with parents and administrators.

Empowering School Systems for Achievement Advocacy
Professional school counselors are in a position to work with all school personnel. Professional school counselors should ensure that administrators are supporting their efforts. When working collaboratively with all school personnel, counselors must use their skills in interpersonal communication, group process, and counseling. Professional school counselors are visible in the school, and provide staff development training and research data to promote systemic change. Administrators are welcomed as a key part of the school counseling programs’ advisory council.

Empowering Community Stakeholders with Achievement Advocacy
Counselors should have community networks in place that allow them to connect parents and children with resources that will help children succeed.

Publicizing how the School Counseling Program Serves as Achievement Advocate for Every Student
If professional school counselors do not perform the role of advocate, it is likely that no one else will. It is rare that professional school counselors receive media reports discussing the proactive roles they play daily in school. Professional school counselors must publicize to internal and external publics their roles as academic leaders, advocates, team members and collaborators, users of data for assessment of academic success, counselors and coordinators, and vital members of the school possessing multicultural, diversity and technology competencies.

Publicizing how the School Counseling Program Serves as Achievement Advocate for Every Student (cont.) A strong internal and external public relations effort is essential to ensure that school counseling programs are seen by others as central to the school’s mission of educating all students effectively. In the past, school counselors and school counseling programs have been criticized for helping to maintain the status quo. School counselors must challenge past practices and demonstrate how programs have changed to include academic success for all students and achievement advocacy as the top priority.

Publicizing how the School Counseling Program Serves as Achievement Advocate for Every Student (cont.) The best school reform promotes equity for all students through access to learning that is: 1. Antiracist and antibias. 2. Reflective of the talents and strengths that can enhance education. 3. Based on the notion that those most intimately connected with students need to be meaningfully involved in their education. 4. Based on high expectations and rigorous standards for all learners. 5. Empowering and just.

Public Awareness Must have a mission/vision statement for the school that is focused on academic success for all students. Ways to publicize the professional school counselor’s role: A column in the school or local newspaper Brochures Use of web sites Speaking engagements at local events Classroom presentations

Specific Suggestions Call or write TV, radio, cable, and newspapers in your area to promote the latest activities or awards for the school counseling staff and students. Interview current and former students, parents, administrators, and teachers related to how professional school counselors made a difference in their lives. Create a school counseling program Internet Web page to promote the school counseling program on the Internet.

Specific Suggestions (cont.)
Create a school counseling program Listserv and encourage local media to have access to it for story ideas and questions related to referrals. Sponsor specific community or school events of a developmental nature and ask local media to cover it. Request that professional school counselor license plates be offered by your state to promote the profession’s visibility. Advocate with local and state legislators to better fund and support school counseling programs.

Summary/Conclusion Research substantiates that particular groups of children and adolescents in the United States are consistently provided fewer resources and substandard teachers and attend school where administrators, teachers, and some politicians do not believe they can achieve at high levels, all resulting in achievement, access, attainment, and funding gaps. School counselors must become exemplary role models for leadership and achievement advocacy.

Chapter Eight Systemic Data-Driven School Counseling Practice and Programming for Equity

New Vision The new vision of school counseling is dedicated to social justice that intentionally increases the social and cultural capital for all students and aids in the attainment of equitable educational outcomes, especially for marginalized populations. To be integral to the mission of schools, school counseling programs need to be systematic, data-driven, equity focused and able to produce measurable results.

(Adapted from Ripley, 2003)

Commitment to Social Justice
A commitment to social justice and educational equity: Asks school counselors to know what they believe in and to courageously lead and advocate through intentional behavior in their daily work on behalf of students. Is embedded in the ASCA code of ethics.

Equity Throughout the school counseling and educational literature there is a resounding call for “equity” in student outcomes. Equity is the elimination of systemic barriers to create a culturally responsive school/district climate. In such a climate, policies and practices build social capital, shape high expectations and, ensure access to rigorous courses necessary for college readiness, extracurricular activities and other educational experiences. The results of equity are measured by participation and performance outcomes that show minimal variance due to race, income, language, gender or other demographic variables.

Program Structure Changing deeply grounded inequities requires intentionally systems-focused programs that reach deep into and across the inner workings of the system and populations of a school district and each individual school. It requires a school system to be grounded in the applied principles of systems theory.

Understanding Systems in Schools
Schools are systems. A systemic focus is achieved by placing the individual at the center of the system and examining the relations between, and expectations of, larger subsystems that impact the individual (e.g., school, family, community).

Understanding the Role of Data
Data has become central to the work of school counselors. Using data in a powerful and transformative way can only happen when those examining the data believe the inequities revealed are unacceptable. The struggle to respond to data without blaming students and their families, using excuses that maintain stereotypes, and resistance still remains a challenge in some school counseling programs.

Data Skills The first step in using data is to master the basics of data usage. Data skills allow the school counselor to reach into the past and present of a school and plan for the future.

Data Skills School counselors should know how to:
Establish baseline data Identify data elements most relevant to a given topic Disaggregate data by different variables Cross-tabulate data to identify inequity Use data to develop goals Translate data goals into interventions Use data to drive strategic planning Use longitudinal data to create benchmarks and monitor student and goal attainment Collect outcome data Request appropriate data formatted for ease of use Compare school data to district, state, and national data Prepare and present data accountability reports to stakeholders

Access Data Access is about opening doors to equitable engagement in the educational process for equitable outcomes. Without access, students who have traditionally not been equitably served by the educational system do not even have the chance to achieve at higher levels. Non-data elements of access: school counselor belief systems and school policies, practices, and procedures. Data elements of access include: course enrollment patterns, student participation in extracurricular and enrichment activities, and the presence of highly qualified teachers.

Attainment Data Attainment data measures rates of completion, specifically the rate at which a behavior, event, or marker point is reached or completed. The term “achievement gap” is often used to refer to gaps that are actually about attainment. Data elements of attainment: completion rates, graduation rates, college going rates, and attendance rates.

Achievement Data Achievement data are primarily about scores (i.e., hard numbers that indicate a test, class, or exam score or grade). Access, attainment, and achievement data elements are all intertwined. To work toward equity in outcomes for students requires that all three gap categories and their corresponding data elements be addressed.

Theoretical Foundations
The theoretical foundation for school counseling programs is rooted in developmental psychology, educational philosophy, and counseling methodology, which provides a holistic foundation for the academic, career, and personal/social development of all students. It is essential for school counselors and other members of the school community to possess an understanding of the diverse ways in which development is contextualized and expressed during the K-12 educational experience.

Accountability Systemic Assessment Vision and Mission Goals
Theory assists in identifying which data elements are most critical at a given developmental level in a given context. Provide guidance about the range of expected growth and development in sensitive and culturally responsive ways that respect a wide range of diversities. Vision and Mission Theory assist in setting a mental model of successful growth and development from a holistic perspective that considers the past and present and points to an optimal future as a life long learner. Goals Theory assists in shaping rigorous goals that have relevant and feasible parameters for growth and development in the educational experience Implementation Theory helps influence content, tone, strategies, information, perspectives, and worldview to facilitate understanding, and, impart knowledge and skill that assist in equitable goal attainment Accountability Theory can assist in the accountability process by offering one of the backdrops against which outcomes are measured for growth and development, the learning process, and systemic and equitable coverage within the cultural context of the school.

Theoretical Foundations
In a systematic data-driven school counseling program, it is critical for professional school counselors to possess an understanding of: Growth and development in children Abraham Maslow’s humanistic theory of development The educational philosophy of such luminaries as Dewey (1910) and Vygotsky (1978) The theory of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning (1956) Understand how higher order thinking skills are translated into curriculum so they can identify and promote it.

Actualization Needs Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lee, V. V. , 2005 Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Actualization Needs Elimination of Disparities Equitable preparation for postsecondary education and endeavors Competency Needs Equity in Access, Achievement and Attainment for ALL students Belonging Needs Culturally responsive school structures, policies, practices and belief systems that validate individual and group identities, worth and dignity as well as equitably develop the social and cultural capital of ALL Safety Needs Physically, emotionally, intellectually and spiritually safe regardless of race, ethnicity, economic status, gender, religion, sexual orientation, nationality, language or disability If needs were met for all students it might look something like this. Physiological Needs Systemically met through school and community brokering of services; identification of those needing FARM or other social and systemic assistance 251

Taxonomy of Learning Anderson & Krathwhol (Beyond Bloom 2001)
ANDERSON, L W, & KRATHWOHL D R (eds.) (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman

Theory into Practice All competencies used in a school counseling program should be able to be back mapped to theory.

Mission of the Program A school’s or district’s mission statement provides the foundation for the school counseling program and states the collective results desired for all students. There are a variety of ways mission statements are written; however, the most critical point is that it sets the foundation for the program to serve all students. The development of the school counseling mission statement is one of the collaborative team initiative of a school counseling advisory team.

Systemic Assessment Systemic assessments identify the needs of students and the larger school community by reaching every subsystem of the school community to ensure that the needs of all diverse populations are included. Methods of collecting information include: School and district databases Adequate Yearly Progress reports Surveys Focus groups Interviews Observations By examining various data elements, professional school counselors can understand what influences access, attainment, and achievement.

Goals National Goals State School Districts Individual Schools
Provide key mandates such as closing access, attainment and achievement gaps, and ensuring safe and drug free schools. State Consider national goals and add issues specific to their states. School Districts Adapt state goals to specific needs of their districts. Individual Schools Add additional goals to meet the needs of the students they serve. By being systemic and data-driven, school counseling programs link to the goals of education and the mission of schools at the national, state, district and building level.

Goals of the School Counseling Program
Professional school counselors apply the data collected from the systemic assessment to create specific goals for their program. Goals: Are developed as general statements of a desired outcome based on the data. Give direction to the program while allowing flexibility and creativity in implementation. Need to be written so that the results can be linked to other school-wide measures of student achievement and produce concrete measures. Can be prioritized to reflect the most intense needs of the school community. Reflect wider concerns, such as the AYP status of the school.

Program Integration The educational success of all students is a school community moral obligation and, therefore, part of the ethical and professional responsibility of all school personnel. The systemic data-driven school counseling program is integrated into the mission of schools by aligning program goals, development, implementation, and evaluation with the educational program. Integration of the school counseling program with the educational program has the advantage of also integrating the school counseling program into school improvement plans and initiatives. For successful integration that truly supports the educational program, professional school counselors need to be familiar with the academic goals and standards of their district and state and any other established curriculum that is used in the school.

Vision for Student Outcomes
District Level School Counseling Program Data-Driven Goals Educational Program Vision for Student Outcomes Systemic Assessment to Gather K- 16 Data School Counseling Program Mission Mission Aligning Building Level Programs with District Mission and Data-Driven Goals Elementary, Middle and Secondary Building Level Building Level Systemic Assessment to Gather Context Specific Data Building Level Developmentally Focused School Counseling Program Mission Developmentally Focused Educational Program Mission Integration with District Level Mission and Goals School Counseling Program Intervention and Implementation Individual School Counselor Performance

Structure/Delivery Schools are systems in which standards-based educational programs are delivered across the entire school community using multi-level initiatives. School counseling programs need to have a structure/delivery process that mirrors system-level reality.

Delivery – Implementation at Multiple Levels
Levels of intervention Individual Group Classroom Grade-level School-wide District Home/family Community/society

School Wide Grade Level Community Family District Classroom Group
Individual (Adapted from Ripley, 2001)

Delivery – Implementation at Multiple Levels
To deliver a program effectively, professional school counselors must possess the knowledge and skills to implement services in all levels of intervention so that program delivery is rigorous at all levels and is not compromised by limited professional school counselor knowledge or skill. This broader delivery of school counseling services exemplifies the systemic nature of the school counseling program.

Outcomes/Results A school counseling program that aligns with reporting categories of the educational program provides a ready-made data base to assist in conceptualizing and responding to the link between the educational program and the school counseling program. This linkage forms a collaborative and systemic integration in the accountability and results of both programs.

Vision: Social Justice Mission: Access and Equity Program: Data Driven
Identify, align with, and support and enhance initiatives in the educational program that focus on the achievement, attitudes and beliefs necessary for graduation among all members of the school community (Lee & Goodnough, 2005)

Ethical and Legal Directives
Practicing ethically and legally guides the implementation of a systemic data-driven school counseling program. Federal, state, and district mandates as well as standards from professional organizations guide the development, implementation, and evaluation of the school counseling program. By appropriately implementing ethical and legal directives and practicing within these guidelines, the professional school counselor and the program interventions equitably serve all students and promote the overall educational mission of the school.

District and School Policies
Create a “way of doing things” Set the tone for the culture and climate of the school Operationalize ethical and legal mandates Help to implement goals The practices and procedures used to implement policy can either advantage or disadvantage all students or specific groups of students. District and school policies interface with the mission, goals, development, implementation, and evaluation of the systemic data-driven school counseling program. Professional school counselors can be leaders and advocates who examine the impact of day-to-day interpretation and application of school policy.

Planning the School Counseling Program
Strategic planning begins with the vision, mission, data, and subsequent goals of the program. Creation of a calendar for the school counseling program is an essential tool that demonstrates the systemic nature of the program and organizes interventions into an intentional order.

Outline of Activities for a School Counseling Calendar
Ongoing Activities Team/IEP meetings Group Level Groups that are beginning, continuing, or ending this month Classroom Targeted interventions with classrooms in need Grade-level Grade-specific interventions School-wide Data collection, analysis, presentation Family Level Parent/Guardian groups Information/skill building workshops Community Level Community advisory boards Task for equity Professional Development Conferences In-house trainings Upcoming Events List of activities that need to be accomplished to ensure timely and thorough planning for each intervention.

Individual This level of intervention is used to respond to crisis situations and issues particular to specific individual students. Issues identified at this level provide insight into issues in the larger school that can then be further examined using specific data elements. Issues at the individual level involve school-wide policies such as: confidentiality, informed consent, duty to warn, and parent/guardian permissions for counseling.

Group This level of intervention responds to specific and targeted needs across all grade levels. Group is a critical level of intervention because it provides social modeling, peer support, and learning through a developmentally appropriate forum. Because this level of intervention serves only a small population of students, it should be intentionally interrelated to corresponding services at other levels.

Classroom Collaborative classroom instruction can be offered in one particular class or across several classes in the school. Data is used to identify classrooms and teachers in need of specific assistance to transform the culture and climate of the learning environment.

Grade Level This level of intervention attends to the context of grade-level experiences and transitions at developmental benchmarks. Emphasis on examining policies that impact specific grade levels is essential. The ability to analyze and use disaggregated data helps the professional school counselor discern the influence of grade level and transition points on students. Examples of interventions include: transition activities, post secondary planning, resume writing, and the scholarship process.

School-wide The school-wide level of intervention has the greatest potential for removing systemic barriers and creating the conditions for learning at all other levels. The potential of this level of intervention lies in examining the interrelatedness and interdependence of all school populations and the corresponding school-wide disaggregated data. Interventions reflect areas of growth and development that are important to the entire school and focus on issues such as culture and climate.

District This level of intervention is focused on connecting the work of school counselors to the larger district in ways that respond to both vertical and lateral district wide issues and increase the equitable outcomes for students. District wide strategic interventions that pool the skill and resources of counselors in both vertical and horizontal teaming and collaboration can maximize time and efficiency and provide a broader perspective on the needs of students. To work effectively at this level the school counselor must possess an understanding of the interrelationship between the needs of elementary, middle and high school students and factors that impact healthy growth and development as well as a basic understanding of the functioning of schools at other levels.

Family Interventions at this level assist parents and guardians in learning skills to successfully navigate school and community services to gain access to resources for their children and assist their children in mastering the skills necessary for educational success. Intentional and culturally responsive outreach to marginalized parent/guardian populations can promote increased engagement of their children in the educational process and thus result in greater equity.

Community This level of intervention is used to actively involve all community stakeholders in creating broad-based partnerships for student success. Community involvement can increase the likelihood that students will experience consistent expectations across the multiple contexts of their lives. Careful planning, documentation, timely and clear communication, and shared decision making are essential. Using data creates urgency and drives decisions; using inquiry helps to focus, evaluate, and revise interventions.

Community Administrative support and sanctioning (preferably codified in policy) of the collaborative efforts of the professional school counselor and program interventions can help prevent school counseling from becoming marginalized and superfluous to the mission of schools.

Evaluating the Systemic Data-driven School Counseling Program
Evaluating a systemic data-driven school counseling program serves several purposes: Demonstrates accountability and establishes the credibility of professional school counselors and the school counseling program. Demonstrates that established goals were met and allows counselors to assess the impact of the program and the levels of programmatic interventions that were most successful. Demonstrates where goals were not met, revealing the need for further examination. Demonstrates how the school counseling program contributes to the achievement of AYP, district, state, and national goals for the equitable achievement of all students.

Implications for Professional School Counselors
Creating systemic data-driven school counseling programs is the ethical responsibility of all professional school counselors in order to meet the needs of all students. Professional school counselors must: Be self-reflective practitioners Be able to assess and evaluate their own skill base Develop and implement an ongoing professional development plan that will allow them to remain relevant Such commitment ensures professional school counselors will develop the competence to implement the systemic data-driven programs that equitably meet the needs of all students.

School Counseling Program Interventions and Implementation
Building Level Educational Program Data-Driven Goals School Counseling Program School Counseling Program Interventions and Implementation Individual School Counselor Performance Individual Group Classroom Grade level School-wide District Family Community Results Data Program Evaluation Performance Evaluation for individual school counselor School Counseling Program and Individual School Counselor Accountability School Counselor Culturally Responsive Practice Delivering Equitable Service at all Levels of Programmatic Intervention When Accountability is met the The Access, Attainment and Achievement Gaps can be Eliminated

Summary/Conclusion This chapter has offered a rationale, description, and tools useful in creating a systemic data-driven school counseling program. To build this type of program, professional school counselors need to possess the values, attitudes, and beliefs implicit in the transformed role of the professional school counselor. The implementation of systemic data-driven school counseling programs can form the bedrock from which the needs of all students are equitably met in a learning environment that encourages academic success with cultural integrity.

Developmental Classroom Guidance
Chapter Nine Developmental Classroom Guidance

Introduction Beginning in the 1970s, states began to drop requirements that professional school counselors be certified, experienced teachers. Currently, only seven states require professional school counselors to have experience as teachers.

Introduction Direct delivery of a school counseling curriculum means that professional school counselors have a considerable role in teaching students in classrooms. In 43 states, many new school counselors do not have a teaching background but will assume significant teaching responsibilities. School counselors must become knowledgeable of effective teaching methods.

The Scope and Responsibility of the Professional School Counselor as a Developmental Classroom Guidance Specialist The ASCA National Model charges professional school counselors with the responsibility of implementing programs to assist all students in their academic, personal/social, and career development. The ASCA National Model suggests 35-45% of the counseling program be devoted to implementing a developmental guidance curriculum in elementary school, 25-35% in middle school, and 15-25% in high school. As a result, professional school counselors must develop teaching skills to fulfill their roles within comprehensive, standards-based programs.

The Effect of Classroom Guidance on Student Development
Overall, studies have found that classroom guidance activities seemed to have a consistently positive effect on students. Students in a fully implemented developmental guidance program including classroom guidance reported higher grades, better preparation and information for future goals, and a more positive school climate. Positive changes were found in classroom behavior and attitudes, exam preparation, school attendance, career goals, college attendance, career planning skills, and coping skills.

Due to accountability issues raised in the ASCA National Model and the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, professional school counselors must demonstrate their interventions are effective. Strategies to show effectiveness of classroom guidance: Collection of data prior to and after the intervention Pre-post test design Collection of content evaluation data and process evaluation data Feedback from students and teachers used to identify which parts of the lesson can be improved upon

For curriculum materials already evaluated for effectiveness, go to: The Center for School Counseling Outcome Research Second Step Violence prevention program Student Success Skills The Real Game Peacebuilders

Developmental Theory Human developmental stages are the basis for effective counseling programs. The challenge for professional school counselors is how to translate developmental theory into practical ideas for the classroom. An example of hierarchical learning (Nicolle, 1994) based on Adlerian psychology includes: Understanding of self and others Empathy skill development Communication skills Cooperation skills Responsibility skills

Role of the Professional School Counselor in Delivering the Curriculum
Professional school counselors implement their role as educator in three ways: Consultation- A counselor might consult with a team of teachers as they plan their curriculum. Classroom teachers can begin teaching developmental guidance lessons after consultation. Collaboration- The professional school counselor works collaboratively in the planning and implementation phases. The teacher and counselor implement the program together as a team with each professional responsible for his/her area of expertise. Direct Teaching- The professional school counselor directly delivers developmentally appropriate guidance units.

Setting Up & Managing a Classroom Environment
Setting up and effectively managing a classroom environment involves: The arrangement of the classroom. Working with the teacher’s rules. Preventing discipline issues in the classroom. Managing disruptive behavior.

Classroom Arrangement
1. Creates a climate for learning 2. Communicates teaching philosophy 3. Communicates interaction expectations

Examples of classroom arrangements include:
Lecture Hall or Classroom-Style Creates a formal, business-like, and cold atmosphere. Emphasizes one-way communication with students taking a passive role. 2. U-shaped or V-shaped Creates a formal atmosphere. Conveys opportunities for interaction. 3. Small Tables Creates a relaxed, informal, student-centered atmosphere where all will have the opportunity to discuss. Encourages active participation. A circle or block arrangement is a modification of this style. 4. One Large Table Encourages free exchange of ideas. Less formal. 5. Circle of Chairs Creates a friendly, relaxed, and warm atmosphere.

Working With The Teacher’s Rules
It is likely that the professional school counselor will use different classrooms to present lessons. As a result, the professional school counselor should be aware of the teacher’s rules within that particular classroom in order to give students consistency. The basic rules of the classroom should be followed.

Preventing Discipline Issues in the Classroom
The best way to deal with discipline issues is to prevent them. Ways to prevent discipline issues include: Creating a well-designed lesson. Make sure the work is not too hard or easy. Make sure the work is not boring. Make sure expectations and instructions are clear. Getting and keeping students’ attention. Keep the whole group alert and on-task through encouragement, praise, non-sarcastic humor, and being dramatic. Enlist student involvement. Have a smooth flow to the lesson (known as momentum). Have sufficient quantities of material ready that students need for the lesson. Be aware of everything going on in the classroom.

Managing Disruptive Behavior as a Counselor in the Classroom
When discipline problems arise, counselors must first decide if there is a need to deal with the problem. Know what behaviors require intervention. It is important that the teacher’s rules are respected. Have strategies to deal with difficult behaviors in effective and respectful ways. Do not act in an authoritarian manner, but embrace democratic principles. Do not be passive in regard to disruptive students.

Reasons and Solutions for Misbehavior
Misbehavior stems from at least one of four student goals: Solutions Attention Seeking Power Revenge Feelings of Inadequacy Use a kind, but firm voice when disciplining. It is important to develop a healthy non-authoritarian relationship with students. Apply logical consequences. Do not engage in a power struggle.

Crafting A Curriculum Curriculum is often developed by committees.
School counseling leadership teams or guidance advisory committees develop curricula that support the counseling program’s vision and goals. The ASCA National Model should be considered when crafting a curriculum. The curriculum should have a theoretical foundation that fosters academic, career, and personal/social development of students. Curriculum implementation is the responsibility of the school community. However, before implementation can occur, a formal assessment must be conducted to determine student needs.

Crafting A Curriculum A formal needs assessment should be conducted at the onset of each program and every three years thereafter. Students, parents, teachers, administrators, and the community should be asked about their perceptions of student needs. After the needs assessment is conducted, the school counseling leadership team decides on student outcomes. These outcomes reflect what students need to be able to know or do upon graduating from high school. The outcomes are then broken down into competencies. Finally methods of assessment are detailed.

Crafting a Curriculum The school counseling leadership team then decides how to help students meet the competencies. Counselors often create their own curriculum materials or use commercially available curricula. There has been a recent emphasis on using commercial curricula for which research evidence of effectiveness exists.

Scope & Sequence When Creating Units and Lessons
The content of the program provides its scope. The sequencing of the curriculum should ensure that grade level learning is not isolated from other grade levels or redundant. Vertical articulation provides for a school or district-wide curriculum that builds skills and competencies sequentially, especially at a given grade level. Horizontal articulation establishes the connection between the content of the counseling curriculum with content in other subject areas, especially across grade levels.

Conceptualizing A Unit
There are three models of teaching guidance curriculum: Direct teaching. Working collaboratively with teachers to present the lessons together. Consulting with teachers and having teachers teach the lessons and units.

Learning Considerations When Planning Units & Lessons
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences exemplifies the need to teach and assess using various modes: Verbal/linguistic Logical/mathematical Spatial Bodily Kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist

Learning Considerations When Planning Units & Lessons - Cognitive Learning
There are six levels or categories of cognitive understanding: Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Within a lesson plan or unit, it is important to teach to and evaluate within several of the categories.

Learning Considerations When Planning Units & Lessons - Affective Domain
The affective domain focuses on using and developing Gardner’s intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences. Five levels of affective learning include: Receiving- Being aware of the affective aspect of the lesson. Responding- Discussion of the affective lesson. Valuing- Assessing one’s values. Organizing- Conceptualizing and arranging values. Internalizing- Developing consistency between one’s beliefs and actions.

Learning Considerations When Planning Units & Lessons – Psychomotor/Kinesthetic/Behavioral Domain
Four areas within this hierarchy include: Moving Manipulating Communicating Creating ****In a well designed unit, professional school counselors attend to learning and development in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor/ kinesthetic/behavioral domains.****

Learning Objectives Learning objectives serve to focus the counselor on the desired outcome of students’ participation in the lesson. There are 4 parts that comprise measurable learning objectives (ABCDs): Audience- For whom the objective is intended. Behavior That Is Expected- Use descriptive verbs that address the cognitive, affective, or psychomotor/ behavioral outcome around which the lesson is structured. Conditions- When or how the intended behavior will be observed and measured. For example, “After observing role plays…” Degree of the Expected Performance- How frequently students will need to exhibit the behavior in order for the objective to be considered met.

Constructing Developmental Lessons and Activities
Lessons can be conceptualized as having three distinct parts: The introduction The developmental activities of the lesson The conclusion, assessment, and follow-up

Introducing Lessons There are two important aspects to remember when introducing a lesson: Communicate an overview and the overall objective(s) of the lesson. Help students understand they already know something about the topic at hand and that during the lesson they will be working to extend their knowledge. Activating previous knowledge helps students orient themselves to the lesson. One method to activate students’ previous knowledge is through semantic mapping.

Developmental Activities
There are two broad areas of understanding that can help guide professional school counselors as they design learning activities: 1. Multiple intelligences Professional school counselors structure and implement their lessons to draw on a variety of cognitive strengths that students’ possess. For example, professional school counselors may want to have students create a song or use role-playing to use various learning styles and intelligences. 2. Level of activity It is important to keep students active. Students who are actively involved will have a more stimulating or engaging class experience.

Conclusion, Assessment, & Follow-Up
The Conclusion Summarize the essential points of the lesson in the last 2-5 minutes of the lesson. Summarize by restating the lesson’s objective(s) and very briefly review how the lesson built upon previously developed skills and knowledge. Ask students how the lesson can apply to life outside the classroom. Assessment Measure or evaluate the learning objectives that were previously written and presented. Follow-Up Students require review sessions to extend upon what they have learned. This can bolster learning and behavioral changes. Follow-up is necessary to ensure that changes in learning and behavior are continuing.

Summary/Conclusion Professional school counselors spend time in classrooms teaching developmental lessons to students focused on academic, career, and personal-social domains. The goal is for all students to achieve the developmental outcomes that local school counseling leadership teams deem essential. Professional school counselors work with teachers to integrate the counseling curriculum with other components in the school’s curriculum.

Counseling Individuals and Groups in Schools
Chapter Ten Counseling Individuals and Groups in Schools

Introduction Responsive services provide special help to students who are facing problems that interfere with their personal-social, career, or educational development. Examples: individual and group counseling, crisis counseling, referrals, consultation and collaboration, and peer facilitation. The amount of time that should be allocated for responsive services depends on the grade level. Suggested allocations include 20% to 30% in elementary schools, 30% to 40% in middle schools, and 25% to 35% in high schools.

Individual Counseling in Schools
When certain negative issues interfere with students’ personal, social, and academic growth, individual counseling may be warranted. Professional school counselors make decisions about how to administer individual counseling services, keeping in mind that those services need to closely align with the educational mission and philosophy of educating all students to high levels of academic, career, and personal–social success.

Counseling In Schools Defined
The goal of implementing counseling interventions is to promote students’ personal and social growth and foster their educational progress. ASCA defines counseling as “a special type of helping process implemented by a professionally trained and certified person, involving a variety of techniques and strategies that help students explore academic, career, and personal/social issues impeding healthy development or academic process”. Some concerns that may be addressed include academic problems, relationship issues, grief and loss, abuse, and stress management. Referrals for individual counseling may come from students, parents, teachers, or others who are involved with the students.

Counseling in Schools Defined
Individual counseling involves a confidential relationship between a student and the professional school counselor and can last from a single session to several sessions. What sets it apart from other forms of interaction is the close emotional contact between the student and the professional school counselor. The focus is on the student’s problem or concern, and the goal is to help the student make positive changes.

Counseling in Schools Defined
Challenges professional school counselors encounter may include: Identifying which students will benefit the most from individual counseling How to integrate these services into the school day How to conduct the counseling process How to evaluate the effectiveness of the interventions Professional school counselors need to be proactive in making decisions about how to conduct individual counseling, with whom, at what time, and under what circumstances.

Developmental Considerations
Knowledge of developmental theory can help professional school counselors make decisions about what approaches to use with students at different levels. Such knowledge helps professional school counselors make informed decisions about whether a particular behavior is developmentally appropriate or is out of the range of “normal.” Developmental knowledge helps professional school counselors build relationships, assess concerns, and design effective interventions for students at all grade levels.

Early Childhood According to Piaget, children in early childhood are in the preoperational stage of cognitive development (ages 2-7). In this stage, children are developing the ability to represent objects and events through imitation, symbolic play, drawing, and spoken language. Children may attribute lifelike qualities to inanimate objects and have difficulty with abstract concepts. From a psychosocial perspective, children are dealing with the developmental crisis of initiative verses guilt (Erikson, 1963). Children are discovering what kinds of people they are, particularly in regard to gender. Children need to be given opportunities to explore, experiment, and ask questions. Play is an important activity at this age. Play is a young child’s form of communication.

Middle Childhood Around ages 7-11 years, children enter into Piaget’s Concrete Operational stage. This stage is characterized by more logical thinking and the ability to mentally reverse actions. Children in this stage learn best through questioning, exploring, manipulating, and doing. Psychosocially, children are resolving the crisis of industry versus inferiority. As a result, children need opportunities to develop a sense of competence and capability. Socialization with peers is important in developing a sense of competence, self-esteem, and an understanding of others.

Adolescence During early adolescence, the shift is made from concrete to formal operational thinking. In the Formal Operational Stage, people are able to deal with abstractions, form hypotheses, engage in mental manipulation, and predict consequences. Reflective abstraction, which is the ability to reflect on knowledge, rearrange thoughts, and discover alternative routes to solving problems is developed. As a result, counseling approaches that provide opportunities to generate alternative solutions are more likely to be effective. A new form of egocentrism emerges that is characterized by the belief that one is unique and invulnerable.

Adolescence (cont.) Psychosocially, adolescents enter into the crisis of identity versus role confusion. Adolescents are challenged to form an identity, which includes the formation of goals, values, and beliefs, as well as life purpose. Adolescents need opportunities to explore options, try on various roles and responsibilities, and speculate about possibilities.

A Counseling Model For Children & Adolescents
Individual counseling consists of the following phases: 1. Building a counseling relationship 2. Assessing specific counseling needs 3. Designing and implementing interventions 4. Conducting evaluation and closure

Building A Counseling Relationship
Key factors involved in establishing a relationship include: Establishing rapport Tailor the responses and interactions to fit the specific needs of each student, taking into account developmental experiences, sociocultural background, and reasons for referral. Be willing to enter completely into the student’s world, with no preconceptions, expectations, or agenda. Play and art media are good approaches with young children; games for older children.

Building A Counseling Relationship
Clarifying the counseling role Provide an age-appropriate explanation of the purpose and nature of the counseling relationship. Explaining confidentiality Professional school counselors are responsible for protecting information received through confidential counseling relationships with students, unless there is a clear and present danger to the student and/or individuals.

Assessing Specific Counseling Needs
The purpose of assessment is to have a better understanding of the child’s needs and to establish goals to meet those needs. By evaluating counseling needs through interviews, informal assessment, and formal assessment, the professional school counselor can gain a better understanding of the student’s development and concerns. This understanding can be used to set goals, design and implement interventions, and evaluate the counseling process.

Assessing Specific Counseling Needs (cont.)
Assessing counseling needs can be done through: Exploring student concerns This process begins with an informal interview. A complete developmental assessment includes: Student’s concerns Physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development Relationships between the child, parents, siblings, classmates, and teachers Student’s school life Strengths, talents, and support systems Informal Assessment Qualitative activities and observations Formal Assessment Standardized measurements

Designing & Implementing Interventions
When designing interventions one must consider developmental level, personality characteristics, and particular circumstances. Other considerations include time constraints, teacher and parent support, and professional school counselor’s level of expertise. If it becomes apparent that the student’s problems are more serious and chronic, the professional school counselor will want to refer him or her to mental health counselors or other helping professionals within the school or community.

Designing & Implementing Interventions (cont.)
Professional school counselors must be intentional and flexible when designing interventions. Being flexible includes recognizing that no single counseling approach is best for all students. Being intentional means taking steps to set goals for counseling collaboratively with students. Professional school counselors can intentionally plan interventions by asking specific questions, such as: Vision: How could things be better? Goal Setting: What needs to be worked on? Analysis: What is getting in the way of resolving the problem? Objective: What specifically does the student want to change? Exploration of interventions: What has already been tried?

Professional school counselors should consider the following factors when selecting interventions: The degree to which the theory (or model) focuses on the counseling relationship. The degree to which the theory enhances student empowerment. The amount of attention devoted to students’ overt behavior. The usefulness of the theory at students’ various levels of development. The flexibility of the theory to various student characteristics. The time span of counseling associated with the theory. The degree to which the theory or model takes into account issues related to diversity and cultural strengths.

In addition to a variety of expressive arts that can promote healing and growth, theoretical approaches particularly effective in school settings include: Adlerian counseling Reality therapy Cognitive-behavioral counseling Solution-focused brief counseling Professional school counselors should consider consulting with other involved individuals invested in the success of the intervention. For example, the professional school counselor should consult with teachers if the teacher is involved in the intervention.

Conducting Evaluation & Closure
Evaluation of the counseling relationship, interventions, and outcomes is an ongoing process. Evaluation methods can be informal or formal. Informal methods include observation. Formal methods include checklists and self-reports. Closure refers to the end of the counseling relationship. Closure is facilitated when professional school counselors: reinforce the progress students have made, encourage them to express their feelings about ending the helping relationship, and determine resources for continued support.

Solution-Focused Brief Counseling
Solution-focused brief counseling (SFBC) is particularly valuable in schools where time constraints are crucial. Brief counseling models parallel the generic model for individual counseling by encouraging students to: Assess the problem in concrete terms Examine previously attempted solutions Establish a specific, short-term goal Implement the intervention SFBC emphasized strengths, resources, successes, and hope, and is a model that can be used with students from diverse backgrounds.

SFBC: Core Beliefs, Assumptions, & Concepts
3 core beliefs upon which SFBC is based: “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” “Once you know what what works, do more of it.” “If it doesn’t work, don’t do it again.” 5 assumptions that guide the SFBC model: Counselors should focus on solutions, rather than problems, for change to occur. Every problem has identifiable exceptions that can be discovered and transformed into solutions. Small changes have ripple effects that lead to bigger changes. Student clients have the necessary resources to solve their problem. Constructing goals in positive terms is more effective. 4 concepts that guide the SFBC model: Avoid problem analysis. Be efficient with interventions. Focus on the present and the future, not the past. Focus on actions rather than insights.

Implementing the SFBC Model
Professional school counselors begin the first session with students by explaining the SFBC approach. Professional school counselors can then help the student formulate goals using a wide range of techniques: The Miracle Question Identifying Instances and Exceptions Mindmapping Cheerleading Scaling Flagging the Minefield

Reality Therapy Reality therapy (RT), also called Choice Theory, was founded by William Glasser, is designed to be brief, and has shown to be particularly effective in school settings. RT provides school counselors with a systematic way to address students’ needs and wants, in both their personal and educational lives.

Reality Therapy: Core Beliefs
“The only person whose behavior we can control is our own.” “All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems that result from attempts of people to control other people.” “Past events have everything to do with what we are today, but we can satisfy our basic needs only in the present and make plans for the future.” “Satisfying the needs represented by the pictures in our quality world is the way we meet our needs for survival, freedom, power, fun, love, and belonging.” “Total behavior is all that we do, including acting, thinking, feeling, and physiology.”

Reality Therapy: Concepts
Quality world: Includes images that make up the life we’d like to have, including people, things, experiences, and values. Five basic needs: Belonging - the need to give and receive love Power - the need to feel in control of one’s self Fun - the need to experience pleasure and enjoy life Freedom - the need to be without limitations, to make one’s own choices Survival - the need to eat, breathe, have shelter, safety, and physical comfort

Implementing the RT Model
RT involves helping students make better choices to meet their needs. Step 1: Build the relationship. Step 2: The student identifies and describes present behavior. Step 3: The student evaluates the present behavior and is likely to change this behavior only if he or she believes that it is not working. Step 4: The student is encouraged to identify alternative behaviors to better meet personal needs.

Step 5: The student chooses one new behavior and commits to trying it. Step 6: In a second session, the counselor and student review the outcome of the student’s attempt at a new behavior. Step 7: The student is allowed to face logical consequences, such as a lower grade on an assignment turned in late. The student is not punished. Step 8: Don’t give up on children who have a hard time changing their behaviors.

Treatment often involves adjusting what students include in their quality world. Questions to help understand a student’s quality world include: Who are the most important people in your life? If you become the person you want to be, what will you be like? What is something you’ve done that you are really proud of? What does it mean to be a friend? What are your most deeply held values?

Professional school counselors can use RT effectively with students by asking five questions: What have you tried so far to help your problem? How has that been working? (Are you getting what you want?) What else could you try? Which of these are you ready to commit to trying? When can we meet again to see if your idea has helped?

Group Counseling in Schools
Group settings are ideal places to conduct both preventive guidance work and remedial counseling. Groups allow students to develop insights into themselves and others and provide an effective and efficient way of dealing with developmental and situational issues. Types of groups: 1. Task group facilitation 2. Group psychoeducation 3. Group counseling 4. Group psychotherapy

Psychoeducational Groups
These groups use educational methods to help students gain knowledge and skills in several domains. They: Focus on personal and interpersonal areas Have a proactive, preventive focus Tend to focus on central themes that correspond with students’ developmental levels A 6-step process is often followed: Statement of purpose. Establishing goals. Setting objectives. Selecting content. Designing exercises. Evaluation.

Counseling Groups When Is Group Counseling Implemented?
Usually offered in schools and is primarily remedial in dealing with concerns. Often employed after a significant event, such as death, divorce, or school failure. Also used with children who display disruptive behavior. Why Should I Implement Group Counseling In My School? The group creates a climate of trust, caring, understanding, and support. Maximizes the opportunity to help others.

Counseling Groups (cont.)
Three approaches to group counseling: Crisis-centered groups - formed due to some emergency. Usually meet until the situation is resolved. Problem-centered groups - set up to focus on one particular concern that is interfering with educational progress. Examples include coping with stress, making career choices, and substance abuse. Growth-centered groups - focus on personal and social development. Their purpose is to enable children to explore their feelings, concerns, values, and behaviors about a number of everyday subjects, such as social competence and making transitions.

Setting up Groups in Schools
Factors to be considered in planning for group work in schools: Collaborating with school staff and parents Open, clear communication about the nature and purpose of a comprehensive developmental school counseling program is key to successful group work Distribute needs assessment surveys to parents and teachers, meet regularly with the principal regarding program concerns and goals, provide outcome data to faculty and parents regarding effectiveness of groups and encourage feedback. Determining group topics Use needs assessments or confidential “counselor suggestion box” Logistics Group size, length of sessions, scheduling, group composition

Setting up Groups in Schools (cont.)
Recruiting and screening group members Provide parents, teachers, and students with an information statement. Use flyers, bulletin boards, newsletters, and word of mouth. During screening, talk with students about the purpose of the group, and expectations of group members, and assess students’ motivation and level of commitment. Obtain letters of permission from parents of students participating in the group. Groups guidelines and confidentiality If possible, conduct a pregroup meeting to help members get acquainted and prepare them for the group experience, and explain issues of confidentiality. Group guidelines are needed to set the foundation for cooperative group relationships.

Conducting Group Work Role and Functions of Group Leaders
5 areas of knowledge and skill: Be clear as to the purpose of the group. Know how to relate developmental theory and counseling theory to group work. Be knowledgeable about the topic or content being covered in the group. Be creative and multisensory. Possess multicultural understanding.

Conducting Group Work (cont.)
Planning, Implementing, and Evaluating Groups Be well-prepared ahead of time, balancing intentionality with flexibility. During beginning sessions, create a safe environment. During middle sessions, establish a routine. During the final group session, take time for summarization and termination. During the final session or a follow-up meeting, give members an opportunity to evaluate the group experience. Follow up with students 6-8 weeks after the group has ended to obtain information about the group’s impact and effectiveness.

Conclusion Individual and group counseling are important components of a comprehensive developmental school counseling program. Individual and group counseling are ways to help students who are facing problems that interfere with their personal, social, career, or academic development. The manner in which professional school counselors carry out individual counseling and group work is affected by a number of factors, including the developmental characteristics of students, personal philosophical orientations, and specific school demands.

Promoting Educational and Career Planning in Schools
Chapter 11 Promoting Educational and Career Planning in Schools

Background for Educational and Career Planning Interventions in Schools
Providing career assistance to students has always been an integral part of the work performed by professional school counselors. During most of the 20th century, professional school counselors fostered students’ career decision making by administering and interpreting interest inventories and aptitude tests. In the 1950s Donald Super proposed a developmental perspective emphasizing career development as a lifelong process.

Background for Educational and Career Planning Interventions in Schools
Super suggested that development through the life stages could be guided, “partly by facilitating the maturing of abilities and interests and partly by aiding in reality testing and in the development of self-concepts.” Changes in the economy, population, and technology have enhanced the need for professional school counselors to focus on the area of educational planning and career development. Increased globalization has altered job titles, roles, and structure within the workplace. Because of technology and the global context, entirely new careers continue to emerge each year.

Education and Career Planning Today
The National Standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) specify three important areas of student development: Standard A. Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions. Standard B. Students will employ strategies to achieve future career success and satisfaction. Standard C. Students will understand the relationship between personal qualities, education and training, and the world of work.

Educational planning is the means through which linkages are forged for students, as well as stakeholders, between academic achievement and postsecondary options. The educational planning process can help students become aware of how their school performance relates to post-high school goal achievement, thereby increasing their motivation to work hard in school. An effective educational planning process eliminates making a career choice by chance.

In elementary school, students should first become acquainted with education and career planning through learning about the relationship between school performance and the world of work and postsecondary education. When students reach middle school, the stage will be set for them to start thinking in more concrete terms about their educational, career, and life goals. The goals students set in middle school will form the basis for making choices about the courses they take while in middle school, as well as help them to create a tentative blueprint for their high school course taking. This sequential process provides students with many and varied opportunities to learn about themselves and engage in mindful planning and preparation.

Life-span, life-space theorists define career as the total constellation of life roles that people engage in over the course of a lifetime. Career development tasks include developing the skills necessary not only for selecting and implementing an occupational choice, but also for selecting, adjusting to, and transitioning through a variety of life roles.

Implementing Systematic and Well-Coordinated Educational and Career Planning Programs
Helps students acquire the knowledge, skills, and awareness necessary for effectively managing their career development (Herr & Cramer, 1996; Walz & Benjamin, 1984). It is important to clearly connect career development interventions to student academic achievement. Making sure to market a program to the school personnel is vital to the success of the program. Use a team approach to reach goals. Help teachers communicate to parents the ways in which career development programs enhance student achievement. Professional school counselors are often the only professionals in the school system with training in career development, as well as the primary figure for helping students with educational planning.

It is through formal and informal assessments that students begin to learn about themselves and their interests, skills, and values related to the world of work. Results from assessments provide professional school counselors with a starting point for guiding students in the career planning process. School counselors must remain current in their knowledge about which career assessments are suitable for use with school-aged youth, as well as possess a general understanding of assessment so they can make informed decisions about which assessments to use.

Types of assessments available to professional school counselors: Kuder Career Search with Person Match Kuder Skills Assessment Super’s Work Values Inventory Self-Directed Search Strong Interest Inventory O*NET Interest Profiler O*NET Ability Profiler O*NET Work Importance Profiler Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Professional school counselors must use emerging technology to sustain an educational and career planning system. Recommended Web sites GENERAL Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) ( OOH for children ( O*NET ( JOB SEARCH Quint Careers ( The Riley Guide ( JobHuntersBible (

JOB SEARCH (continued) Career Builder ( Monster ( Simply Hired ( Indeed ( COLLEGE ADMISSION AND FINANCIAL AID Peterson’s ( U. S. News and World Report ( College Board ( Quint Careers ( U. S. Department of Education (

Elementary Schools In elementary schools children begin formulating a sense of identity outside of their immediate family. Television often provides children with gender-stereotyped roles and occupations, and limited perceptions of careers for people of color. The use of non-traditional models, such as a male nurse or female engineers, help expose children to a broad range of occupational possibilities. Children naturally express curiosity through fantasy and play which can provide a foundation for exploring careers such as firefighting, nursing, and teaching.

Elementary Schools (cont)
When students are encouraged to participate in activities that are related to their interests it helps develop a sense of autonomy, an anticipation for future opportunities for exploring, and the beginning of planful behaviors. When these interests connect with skills and capacities, a positive self-concept emerges, providing the foundation for the future career development tasks of adolescence. Students in elementary school also can engage in career exploration by developing and understanding the importance of educational achievement. The primary focus of career development interventions for elementary school children is awareness, in its many facets.

Elementary Schools (cont)
Educational planning in elementary school is also essential. Raising student awareness about the training and educational requirements for occupations that interest them may serve to heighten their motivation to do well in school. Students at this age should become aware of how the skills they are learning in school are used in various careers. Students’ performance in elementary school can have a significant influence on their future course taking and postsecondary options.

Practical Ideas for Career Development Activities
Ask students to identify and discuss the jobs that they have observed in their communities and then add to their knowledge base by introducing a few new ones. Encourage students to identify the “jobs” they currently have as students and sons or daughters. They can use this self-knowledge to create a “Me and my Job” booklet that highlights their interests, as well as their “job” responsibilities at school and home. Fill paper grocery bags with two to five items that are associated with a specific career. Take the items out of each bag on by one and have students guess the type of worker that uses those items. For example, one bag could be filled with a stethoscope and blood pressure cuff to represent a doctor. Ask students to draw a picture of a job they might want to have when they are older.

Give each student a letter of the alphabet and ask them to select a job that begins with that letter, draw a picture of the job, and write three tasks or activities that are related to that occupation. Bind the students’ work together to create an “Alphabet Career Book” for the school’s library. Read a developmentally appropriate story (e.g., Worm Gets a Job by Kathy Caple for students in 2nd grade and below) to a classroom and then have the students identify the various jobs that were discussed in the book. Expose students to women who work in traditionally “male” occupations and men who work in traditionally “female” occupations. For students in grades 3 to 5, require each student to complete an interview with an adult about his or her career. Questions should focus on what the adult does and the schooling needed to prepare for that career. After interviews have been conducted, students can share their findings with the class.

Challenge students to look into the future and think about how the jobs they are currently interested in might be different in 15 to 20 years. Using a computer lab, provide students with time to research the education, training, and skills they will need to be successful in these “future careers.” Host a career day or career week where students’ parents and members of the community visit the school to talk about their occupations. Arrange field trips to nearby businesses to help students get a sense of the types of occupations that exist in those fields (e.g., hospital, grocery store, library, bank, etc.). Provide parents with links to any Web sites used in the career development program so that they have the chance to explore these sites with their children at home and reinforce the learning that occurred in school.

Middle Schools At the middle school level the interventions are more complex and focused. Since middle school students are typically preoccupied with belonging and are influenced significantly by same-sex peers, the focus of the interventions should be on helping students crystallize and articulate their ideas. In middle school, realistic expectations should be held for students while also encouraging them to develop a realistic self-concept and learn more about possible opportunities.

Middle Schools (cont) The link between school activities and future opportunities that was first developed in elementary school needs to be strengthened in middle school. Stress the process of “lifelong learning” that can lead to occupational success. Inform students of the positive correlation between academic achievement and the amount of income workers earn. The primary focus of career development in the middle school is on exploration. Students must learn the skills necessary for accessing and using educational and occupational information.

Middle Schools (cont) For students who wish to attend college, it is essential that they begin talking about these plans with their parents and the appropriate school staff while in middle school so that they can take classes that will adequately prepare them for the rigorous courses (i.e., college prep) they will need to take once they reach high school. Students who do not have any postsecondary plans or goals will be at a distinct disadvantage later on in their academic career if they find that they have not achieved high enough grades or taken the necessary classes to prepare themselves for the occupation or continuing education they desire.

Administer a career interest inventory, skills assessment, and values inventory. Using the results from these inventories, help students pinpoint one or two career clusters that are of interest to them to begin exploring in more detail. Present a classroom guidance lesson to students in the computer lab introducing them to the host of available online resources to help them learn about careers. Ask students to make a list of occupations they think women most commonly work in and the occupations they think men most commonly work in and have them share their lists with the class. Teach students about nontraditional career opportunities and how certain jobs have been stereotyped and discriminated against as “male jobs” or “female jobs.” Present common myths related to nontraditional jobs, as well as information about the realities of these jobs. End with a discussion about the implications of such stereotyping.

Inform students about the importance of educational and career goal-setting. Create a goal-setting worksheet that asks students to list two educational goals and two career goals that they have for themselves. Deliver a classroom guidance lesson on the connection between school and work and assign students the task of conducting one informational interview with a professional in the community. Prepare a presentation introducing students to the wide range of postsecondary possibilities (e.g., four-year college, community college, vocational school, job training) and provide a sampling of occupations corresponding to each pathway. Introduce students to the concepts of lifestyle and life roles and have each student write down how they currently spend their time and their current life roles, as well as what they would like their lifestyle to be like and what life roles they think will be important to them when they are adults.

Collaborate with teachers to find ways to integrate career development activities into students’ core classes. Host a career day or career fair where students have the opportunity to meet and hear from professionals who work in a diverse range of occupations. Work with students to begin creating a career portfolio, either on the computer or in a binder, to house the results from their assessments, as well as any other important documents, activities, projects, or research that they accumulate throughout middle school that will aid them in the career and educational decision making process once they reach high school.

High Schools In the transition from middle to high school, students focus on the task of identifying occupational preferences and clarifying career/lifestyle choices. The next step is for students to improve their skills of adjustment. Workforce readiness is a key to successful career planning in high school because a majority of high school students go directly to work immediately following high school. Since transitions typically cause anxiety in most people, students need emotional support to lessen the anticipatory anxiety.

High Schools (cont) The transition skills acquired in high school build upon the self-awareness, occupational awareness, and decision-making skills students have developed throughout their educational experience. Acquiring information about jobs, colleges, and training programs, requires research, technology, and reading skills. Providing career guidance is one of the most important contributions professional school counselors make to a student’s lifelong development. Students need also to be aware of the choices they will make throughout high school and beyond.

High Schools (cont) Marcia (1989) focused on two variables, crisis/exploration and commitment, as central to the career development process during adolescence. Crisis/exploration sorts through identity issues and questions parentally defined goals. Commitment refers to the extent that the individual is personally involved in, and expresses allegiance to self-chosen goals, aspirations, values, beliefs, and career options.

High Schools (cont) Educational planning culminates in high school—students must begin to make serious decisions about their future. Students should formulate an educational plan delineating the steps they will need to take to achieve their postsecondary goals. Professional school counselors should help with the educational planning process by connecting students with opportunities to more fully investigate, learn about, and prepare for the preliminary goals they have set for themselves (e.g., elective classes, job shadowing, summer enrichment programs, informational interviews).

Administer interest inventories to students that provide them with information about careers and college majors potentially suitable for them. Have students research two or three careers and college majors that sound interesting to them. Help all students create a four-year educational plan (this is a requirement of many public schools). Use students’ postsecondary goals and results from career assessments to help guide course selection. Inform students that different occupations require different levels of education. In a computer lab, show students a few helpful career Web sites and ask them to locate occupations that require certain degrees. Present a lesson on decision-making to students and teach them a specific decision-making model. Inform students that sound decision-making skills will enable them to make educated choices about their postsecondary plans.

Run counseling groups for students on topics related to career development and educational planning (e.g., choosing a college, succeeding in college, finding a job, choosing a career). Connect with local companies and professionals to provide students with job shadowing opportunities. Collaborate with English teachers to present lessons to 11th and 12th graders on how to write a resume and cover letter. Host a mock interview day for 11th and 12th graders. Bring in members of the community to conduct brief mock interviews with students, as well as provide them with feedback.

Advertise local job and college fairs, or host your own. Invite college representatives to visit campus and hold information sessions for interested students. Hold information sessions about financial aid and scholarship opportunities for students interested in attending college. Offer job workshops to assist students in finding and applying for jobs. If the high school you work at has a career resource center, create a scavenger hunt to orient students to the career and educational information and resources available to them.

Multicultural Implications
When designing a K–12 educational and career planning program, students’ cultural backgrounds are salient and an important part of the process. The professional school counselor must be aware of how culture intersects and influences all aspects of career and educational planning in elementary, middle, and high school to promote development that is congruent with the client’s culture.

Developing Life-role Readiness
The life-role readiness concept is based on developmental approaches to school counseling (Myrick, 2002). The eight content areas: Understanding school environment Understanding self and others Understanding attitudes and behaviors Decision-making and problem-solving Interpersonal and communication skills School success skills Career awareness and educational planning Community pride and involvement These areas focus on specific life-roles that are needed to achieve life-role readiness.

Fostering Life-role Readiness and Life-role Salience
In elementary and middle schools counselors can introduce students to the primary roles of life (e.g., student, worker, family member, citizen). Students can talk about and decide the importance of each life-role. Middle school and high school students can be encouraged to participate in activities that foster the development of life-role readiness. Students can examine the relationship between their goals and their current life-role activities. Counselors can achieve this by asking questions about what life-roles students are involved in and which are most important to them or their family.

Fostering Life-role Readiness and Life-role Salience (cont)
Patterns of life-role salience are significantly influenced by one’s immediate family, cultural heritage, level of acculturation, economics, and environmental factors. Counselors should make students aware of how they are influenced and help them in their decision making. Group and individual guidance can both be helpful in discussing various cultural perspectives that are generally assigned to specific life-roles. Borodovsky and Ponterotto (1994) suggested using a genogram as a useful tool for exploring the interaction between family background, cultural perspectives, and career planning.

Activities to Foster Life-role Readiness
Once one has established how contextual factors influence one’s life-role salience, counselors must engage students in activities to further develop life-role readiness. Super (1957, 1977) suggests that to develop life-role readiness we must plan for what the student is about to encounter. For instance, if a student is college-bound, one should plan for the academic tasks ahead to see if they match the abilities of the student. Another intervention would be to plan a “life-role portfolio” where students are encouraged to plan, explore, and gather information for each of their major roles in life.

Summary/Conclusion A major goal of professional school counseling programs is to facilitate student development toward effective life-role participation. Professional school counselors must initiate appropriate developmental guidance activities in elementary school (e.g., self-awareness, curiosity) and facilitate culmination of this process with assistance in the transition to school, work, and a variety of life roles.

Consultation, Collaboration, & Parent Involvement
Chapter Twelve Consultation, Collaboration, & Parent Involvement

The Counselor As Consultant
Professional school counselors are an important resource for teachers. Teachers experiencing problems in the classroom after attempting to implement unsuccessful instruction and discipline often turn to professional school counselors for assistance. Parents and family members also seek support from the professional school counselor about what is normal development or expected behavior.

Background Gibert Wrenn’s (1962) report, The Counselor in a Changing World, urged that consultation with teachers, parents, and administrators be necessary elements of the professional school counselor’s role. In the 1970’s the developmental guidance and counseling movement reinforced the importance of consultation for the professional school counselor.

Consultation Models Through consultation, professional school counselors can assist more students by working directly with individuals who have frequent contact with students, such as teachers and family members. Three models of consultation: 1. Triadic-Dependent 2. Collaborative-Dependent 3. Collaborative-Interdependent These models are distinguished by the type of interaction that occurs between the consultant and the person or persons seeking the consultant’s help.

Triadic-Dependent Indirect Approach
The consultant provides services indirectly to the client by working with the consultee. Direct Approach Counseling the student. Mixed Approach Combines indirect and direct approaches. For example, the counselor may consult with teachers or family members (indirect service to the student) and provide the same student with one-on-one counseling (direct services to the student).

Triadic-Dependent (cont.)
In this model, the consultant is viewed as the expert and the consultee is dependent upon the consultant’s advice and recommendations. The consultant works through the consultee to bring about change for the client. The immediate recipient of this model is the consultee. The immediate goal of this model is to increase the skills and knowledge of the consultee and implement an intervention plan to achieve change for the client. Professional school counselors who help teachers and family members acquire the skills necessary to implement a behavior management plan use this consultation model.

Tips for Effective Triadic-Dependent Consultation
Make sure the environment for the consultation is comfortable and professional. Quickly establish the purpose of the consultation. Try to minimize anxiety and maximize cooperation. Give the consultee the opportunity to tell “his or her story.” Get to the point efficiently and avoid educational or psychological jargon. Establish clear boundaries for the consultee. Probe for any factors or conditions that may be relevant to effective treatment planning.

Tips for Effective Triadic-Dependent Consultation
Focus on the student’s behavior, not the student. Use classroom observations to collect additional information. Develop a working relationship with the consultee as an equal partner in the endeavor. Provide resources that can help the consultee better understand the issues and interventions. Schedule follow-up procedures during the initial consultation. Document in writing contacts with consultees or others involved with the issue.

Collaborative-Dependent
The consultee continues to depend upon the consultant’s: Problem-solving expertise. Knowledge of normal and abnormal development. Skills for affecting client and systemic change. The consultant and consultee create a partnership. The consultant and consultee establish mutual goals and objectives for the client and develop an intervention plan. However, the consultee is responsible for implementing the intervention plan.

Collaborative-Dependent (cont.)
A collaborative-dependent consultation relationship may focus on help for: A specific client (Client-focused consultation). The consultee (Consultee-focused consultation). The organizational context or system (System-focused consultation)

Collaborative-Interdependent
The previous consultation models are helpful when seeking change for an individual client, family, or single organizational system related to normal developmental problems. When problems are more complex, the collaborative-interdependent model is useful. In this model, a group of people with diverse expertise generate creative solutions to mutually defined problems (Idol, Nevin, & Paolucci-Whitcomb, 1994). Family members, educators, professional school counselors, youth, and members of the broader community contribute as equal participants. This model does not presume that any single person has sufficient knowledge or information to understand the problem and develop and implement solutions.

Collaborative-Interdependent (cont.)
Each person in the group is interdependent upon the expertise of other group members in formulating and executing the problem-solving plan. Everyone works as a team.

Collaboration To function most effectively, professional school counselors must seek specialized training to gain knowledge of the collaborative process. True collaboration includes jointly agreeing to identify and address specific problems and areas of service (Payzant, 1992). When true collaboration exists, all parties equally share the outcomes.

Collaboration (cont.) Collaboration is a mutually beneficial and well-defined relationship entered into by two or more organizations to achieve common goals. Professional school counselors need to help staff members recognize the benefits of developing relationships with other service providers and agencies. Through collaboration, professional school counselors will gain a clearer understanding of what other agencies can contribute and how they function. These leadership efforts will improve the academic achievement of students.

Features Of A Collaborative Style Of Interaction
1. Collaboration is voluntary. 2. Collaboration is parity - Each participant has an equal voice. 3. Collaboration depends upon shared responsibility for decision making. 4. Collaboration is based on mutual goals and a shared accountability for outcomes. Commitment is critical. All participants must agree on what the team is to accomplish. 5. Individuals who collaborate share their resources without dictating how these resources are to be used.

The Consultant’s Role In Helping Others Function Collaboratively
The consultant can: Model a collaborative style when interacting with teachers and family members by engaging others as equals in the problem-solving process. This sends a message that no one is “the expert.” Seek others’ perspectives. Be open to new ways of conceptualizing problems. Integrate others’ suggestions in intervention plans. Reinforce others’ ideas. Be flexible with how one’s role is defined and executed. Assist a team in establishing group norms that reflect collaboration.

Collaborative Group Roles
Professional school counselors Provide leadership, establish norms, model collaborative behavior, and recommend program evaluation procedures. School-based mental health clinicians and other community mental health practitioners Teach the group about mental health problems and facilitate referrals. Faculty members Provide the group with theoretical models for primary and secondary intervention.

Collaborative Group Roles (cont.)
Teachers Implement staff development workshops, provide leadership, and advise the group on how to best integrate the goals into the broader curriculum. Family members Serve as liaisons between the work group and other parents to communicate goals and strategies to the broader community. Identify neighborhood leaders who could provide information about community needs.

The Consultation Process
Effective consultation in a school setting requires skill in problem solving and an ability to form collaborative relationships with other experts, including family members. There is a six-step systems-based process model for school consultation.

Step One: Entering the System
The counselor as a consultant needs to be psychologically ready to enter the organizational system. The professional school counselor needs to enter the school’s system with a mindset that is flexible, committed to establishing collaborative relationships, and motivated to encourage changes to promote student success. When entering the system, it is important to understand the goals of the system and how these goals relate to the consultant’s role. The consultant who can directly link her program to the school’s mission will have an easier time gaining faculty support. The consultant must have a clear understanding of the school’s perception of his or her role.

Step Two: Joining The System
It is important to earn the respect of teachers, administrators, and family members. The consultant will begin to earn their respect by attending to the following six points:

Step Two: Joining The System (cont.)
Point 1. Learn the system’s rules and metarules. The consultant should know: The larger school system’s policies and procedures. The school’s interpretation of how these policies and procedures are implemented. That many unwritten rules (i.e., meta-rules) exist that can be learned only through interactions with the system. The consultant should be aware of these rules.

Point 2. Observe explicit and implicit positions of power. Little works well in the school without the principal’s support. School secretaries occupy an implicit power position within the school. However, they are often vital links in communication between teachers and parents. Certain teachers are highly regarded in the school. These teachers can enhance or jeopardize change depending upon whether they support the initiative.

Point 3. Build alliances through shared agendas, recognition of individual strengths, and supportive actions. The need for others to perceive a common agenda between themselves and the consultant is critical to the consultant’s acceptance. Forming alliances with those that have explicit and implicit positions is important. Taking the time to get to know others and offering assistance is helpful in building alliances. The consultant must be sensitive to giving the impression of aligning with any one group against another.

Point 4. Establish communication with members of all relevant subsystems. The school system is made up of several subsystems: administrative, faculty, staff, parent, student/peer, and community. Each subsystem may be composed of smaller subsystems. Interventions may involve several subsystems, so it is important to get to know and be known by members of these different subsystems. Developing an awareness of the types of issues that might create friction between subsystems is also important.

Point 5. Maintain objectivity Acceptance can take time, but it is important to remain objective. Look at challenges as opportunities and see resistance as a reaction to change rather than a personal affront.

Point 6. Stay one down In order to work effectively, the consultant needs to work in a way that is not threatening to anyone’s territory. Consultants need to minimize status differences between themselves, teachers, and family members. Acknowledging the expertise of the other person, seeking advice, asking for assistance, asking for the other person’s perspective and suggestions, and being open to trying new approaches are ways the consultant can recognize another person’s skills and knowledge.

Step Three: Initiate Problem Solving
This stage begins the working stage of the process model. Problem complexity often determines which consultation model the consultant uses. This stage includes collecting information to assist in identifying the problem. The consultant also brings to this stage knowledge of group dynamics and ability to facilitate group processes.

Step Three: Initiate Problem Solving (cont.)
The consultant can work to: Establish collaborative group norms. Encourage cooperation. Explicitly recognize the expertise of all participants. Create communication patterns that allow all to participate equally in the problem-solving process.

Step Four: Frame Change
The consultant works with others to set goals and shape an action plan for accomplishing goals that are realistic and can be executed. It is helpful to keep the following points in mind when framing change: Identify goals - After assessment of the problem, goals are identified. Determine outcome measures. Empower participants as change agents - Create hope that change can be accomplished. Think multi-systemically - Change for the individual is often dependent on changing the system. Encourage flexible roles and permeable boundaries. Plan to protect change - Strategize about what to do if the unexpected happens.

Step Five: Evaluate Change
Monitoring progress and determining whether goals have been accomplished are components of evaluating change. The evaluation should assess if change has occurred, and, if so, to what degree. Decisions about continuing the intervention are also made at this time.

Step Six: Facilitate Closure
Debriefing with consultees allows an opportunity to discuss outcomes and reflect on the effectiveness of working as a group.

School Consultation & Collaboration with Diverse Populations
Multicultural consultation: “a culturally sensitive, indirect service in which the consultant adjusts the consultation services to address the needs and cultural values of the consultee, the client, or both” (Tarver Behring & Ingraham, 1998, p. 58). Effectiveness of collaboration and consultation approaches relies upon the consultant and consultee participating as equal partners.

School Consultation & Collaboration with Diverse Populations
Ingraham (2003) proposed a multicultural school consultation framework with five components: Domains of consultant learning and development involve knowledge and skill requirements in eight competency domains, including understanding one’s own culture and its impact on others. Domains of consultee learning and development involve the knowledge, skills, confidence, and objectivity to deal with diverse circumstances. Cultural variations in the consultation constellation involve cultural similarity between and among the consultant, consultee, and client. Contextual and power influences involve societal influences, balance of power issues, and “cultural similarity within a differing cultural system” (p. 327). Hypothesized methods for supporting consultee and client success involve knowledge, skills, and strategies of various supportive interventions in areas such as how to frame problems.

Collaborative Consultation- Reaching Out to the Broader Community
The collaborative consultation model has to engage and be responsive to the broader community and advocate for the integration of basic services. In order to create an effective integrated network of community-school professionals, professional school counselors need to be familiar with other social institutions. How do they function? Who in these systems represent potential partners?

Involving Parents in Education
In general, students whose parents are involved in and supportive of their educational journey achieve higher levels of performance and are better adjusted socially and emotionally. Today, schools harbor a population of students with academic, personal, and social problems that create barriers to academic success. School reform has redefined the roles of many school professionals. All must become actively involved in strengthening relationships between schools, families, and communities.

Involving Parents in Education (cont.)
Children are arriving in the classroom with needs far exceeding traditional educational methods, and professional school counselors are well positioned to be proactive. Through collaboration, professional school counselors will gain a clearer understanding of what other agencies can contribute and how they function. Professional school counselors can act as a liaison to parents and community agencies in facilitating collaborative efforts.

School Outreach and Changing Family Needs
Professional school counselors are the key to increasing opportunities for parents to be involved and supportive of their child’s education. Some parents are very involved and supportive of their child’s education and some are not. The great majority of parents, however, care about their children’s education. Job and family demands engage much of parents’ time, often to the exclusion of school involvement.

Types of Parental Involvement
Parenting: Parent education workshops and home visits Communicating: Yearly conference with every parent and weekly folder of student work sent home Volunteering: Parent room or family center and class parent Learning at home: Information on homework policies and summer learning packets Decision-making: Active PTA/PTO and district-level committees Collaborating with communities: Service to community and through partnerships

Communicating Effectively with Parents and Guardians
Both parents and school personnel set up road blocks to communication. School staff must treat parents as partners in education, involving each to maximize the potential of all students. The counselor is often the first school contact and must strive to make parents feel welcome in school. Many schools offer one-way communication with parents in the form of newsletters or flyers but they also need to engage in two-way communication. For example: phone calls, , home visits, conferences, etc.

Communicating Effectively with Parents and Guardians (cont.)
One of the National Education Goals challenges every school to promote partnerships and increase parent participation in the growth of children. If we are to meet the standards of Goals 2000: Educate America Act, it is imperative that all parents and families become involved in their children’s learning process. Through parent workshops counselors can teach parents skills for listening and communicating with their child.

Strategies for Communicating
These strategies are based on the U.S. Department of Education publication, Reaching All Families. Welcome letter sent home at the beginning of the year. Home-School handbook with school rules and policies. Provides an opportunity to define the professional school counselor’s role and function. Information packets provide more detailed information about the role of the professional school counselor. Calendars highlight counselor planned or coordinated meetings and events for parents.

Strategies for Communicating (cont.)
School newsletter allows counselors to post a regular column. Open house is an opportunity for counselors to invite parents into the school and meet them. New families meeting allows new families the chance to tour the school and to meet their child’s counselor. School-parent compacts are voluntary agreements between home and school to define goals, expectations, and shared responsibilities. Positive phone calls are used to report good information about their child to parents.

Summary/Conclusion Through consultation, professional school counselors affect positive growth for students by working directly with teachers and family members, and the systems within which these groups live and work. A professional school counselor’s primary focus is prevention, which can be accomplished most effectively by maximizing the consultation function. Professional school counselors are uniquely positioned to provide both traditional and innovative services to meet the needs of children and families.

Chapter Thirteen Accountability

Accountability Accountability involves responsibility for professional actions. In the context of a school counseling program, this may involve: Identifying and collaborating with stakeholder groups Collecting data and assessing needs of students, staff, and community Setting goals and establishing objectives based on data Implementing effective interventions Measuring the outcomes of interventions Using results for program improvement Sharing results with major stakeholders Numerous contemporary factors have called for greater accountability from professional school counselors and an increased focus on assessment.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Accountability Studies
Data is better than perception when guiding decision-making. Accountability helps demonstrate necessity, efficiency, and effectiveness of program. Studies can help identify professional development needs. Professional school counselors can network to share program results. Conducting accountability studies is a professional responsibility and demonstrates commitment to improvement. DISADVANTAGES Outcome measures take some training and skill to develop. Quality outcome research and evaluation takes time and resources. Many do not understand the nature and purpose of accountability because of misperceptions or previous “bad” experiences. Data is sometimes “over interpreted” or given undue meaning. Comprehensive evaluations are seldom conducted, leaving the “big picture” incomplete.

5 Questions to Address Accountability in the School Counseling Program
Is a comprehensive, standards-based program in place? (program evaluation or audit) What are the needs of the school’s student population when compared to these standards? (needs assessment) What services were implemented to address the identified needs and standards? (service assessment) What was the result of the implemented services? (results or outcomes studies) How well is the professional school counselor performing? (performance evaluation/appraisal)

Accountability: Evaluating Programs and Assessing Outcomes
It is a professional and ethical responsibility for professional school counselors to evaluate their program to ensure that the services provided to students, school personnel, and parents are of high quality and effective in meeting intended needs. Without accountability data to back up service provision, school counseling services could be among the first “nonessential services” to go during budget cutbacks.

Program Evaluation Program evaluation: a systematic examination of a program’s content. Program evaluation asks 2 questions: Is there written program documentation? Is the written program being appropriately implemented?

Program Evaluation (cont.)
A program audit should be conducted at the end of the year and reports should address: Program strengths Areas in need of improvement Long and short-term goals ASCA suggested that program criteria be evaluated on the following response choices: None (not in place) In Progress (begun, but not completed) Completed (but perhaps not implemented) Implemented (fully implemented) Not Applicable (when the criteria do not apply)

Needs Assessment Purposes of needs assessment:
Helps professional school counselors understand the needs of various subpopulations of a school community. Helps establish the priorities that guide the construction of a comprehensive developmental school counseling program. Assesses not only what currently is, but what should be.

Data Driven Needs Assessment
Data-driven decision-making deals with real needs and impact, and begins with an analysis of school-based performance data. Aggregated data: results are lumped together to show total grade level or school-wide (average) results. Helpful in understanding how the average students perform in a given class, grade, or school. Tells very little about the diversity of learner performance or needs. Tells nothing about how various subgroups or subpopulations performed.

Interpreting Norm-referenced Scores: The Basics
Percentile rank: Most easily understood by visualizing a line up of 100 individuals all with certain characteristics in common, with the 1st student in the line as the lowest performing student and the 100th student in the line the highest performing. A student’s place indicates their relative standing compared to other students their age across the country (national percentile rank). Quartile: Interpretive statistic which divides the percentile rank distribution into 4 segments. Q1 = 0-25, Q2 = 26-50, Q3 = 51-75, Q4 =

Interpreting Norm-referenced Scores: The Basics (cont.)
Stanine: Short for standard nine Divides a normal distribution into nine segments, the 1st represents the lowest level of performance and the 9th represents the highest level of performance Unlike quartiles, stanines represent one-half standard deviation units and may be comprised of varying percentages of the population

Data Driven Needs Assessment (cont.)
Disaggregated data: results are broken down by subpopulations so that performance differences between and among groups can be analyzed. Analysis usually involves intergroup differences (male vs. female, race, ethnicity) Helps to provide hard evidence of gaps in student performance, rather than relying on perceptions. Provides direction for the types of strategies and interventions needed to close these achievement gaps.

Perceptions-based Needs Assessments
Professional school counselors are often interested in what teachers, parents, and students perceive as primary needs to be addressed in a developmental way.

Frequency of Conducting a Needs Assessment
It is best to follow a continuous cycle of assessing programmatic needs. Breaking down needs into areas of academic, career, and personal-social development can guide the rotation of needs assessments. Assessing needs is part of a much bigger endeavor: implementing curricular changes to continuously improve the comprehensive developmental counseling program.

Populations to be Assessed
It is most practical and efficient to seek out those stakeholders who are informed and likely to respond, such as teachers, administrators, students, and parents. Although more difficult to obtain large responses, valuable information can be garnered from community organizations, local businesses, and the general public as well. When considering the return rate, a higher return rate leads to a lower sampling error, which leads to greater confidence in the accuracy of the results. The highest priority needs should be those agreed to by all or most populations assessed.

Design Issues in an Efficient Needs Assessment
Stone and Bradley (1994) recommended seven methods for determining needs: Questionnaires and inventories Analysis of records Personal interviews Counseling statistics Classroom visits Use of outside consultants Systematic evaluation of the guidance program What is most important is that the needs assessment uses objective methods for data gathering and analysis.

Steps to Form an Efficient Needs Assessment
Decide what you need to know. Decide on the best approach to derive what you need to know. Develop the needs assessment instrument or method. Enlist the support of colleagues and a few individuals from the target groups to review and try out items for understanding. Implement the final version on the target groups. Tabulate, analyze, and interpret the results. Translate the results into programmatic goals and objectives.

Design Issues in an Efficient Needs Assessment (cont.)
It is important to take the population into consideration when designing a scale: For teachers—should ask for grade level, number of students in the class, etc. For parents—should ask for the names of the parent’s children in case responses require contact by the counselor. For students—should ask for student’s grade and homeroom teacher’s name. Questions or response stems should be short, to the point, and easily understood. Reading level of the items should be appropriate for the target audience.

Response Formats If the purpose is to determine the importance or frequency of a potential problem, it is generally best to use a multipoint scale with 3-5 choices such as: Rarely Sometimes Frequently Most of the time Almost always It is important to provide a clear description of each choice. Be wary of response choices such as: “Never” and “always”, as they are rarely ever the case. “Yes” and “no”, as they force an all or nothing response

Design Issues in an Efficient Needs Assessment (cont.)
It is important to include a frequency count in a needs assessment in order for professional school counselors to not only assess the importance of an issue, but also determine how many, and which students are in need of a specific service. Computing the results of a needs assessment is probably best accomplished by assigning a number value to each response category and averaging all responses for a given item.

Converting Needs to Program Goals and Objectives
If the needs assessment was designed correctly, translating the results into goals and learning objectives is relatively easy. Step 1: Prioritize the needs in order of importance and their relationship to existing components of the program. Step 2: Match up or translate the needs into goals included in the national standards. Step 3: Operationalize the goals through development of learning objectives.

Service Assessment Service assessments are often requested by guidance supervisors and demanded by superintendents and school boards to document how counselors are spending their time. Two types are commonly used: Event-topic counts Involve documenting each time an individual is contacted or provided with a counseling service and the nature of the topic addressed. Time logs Involve documenting and categorizing activities for every minute of the workday. Unfortunately, service assessments give no information about the quality or effectiveness of counselor interventions.

Results or Outcomes Evaluation
Answers the question, “How are students different as a result of the program?” (Johnson & Johnson, 2003) Assessment is not a discrete component, but rather an integrated part of a continuous process for program improvement. The evaluation cycle: QuestionsEvidenceInterpretationConclusionsChange

Results or Outcomes Evaluation (cont.)
Assessment of school counseling programs IS: a way to answer important program-related questions. the responsibility of an accountable professional school counselor. a cooperative endeavor with other school counseling program advisory committee (SCPAC) members and stakeholders. ongoing and evolving, a means to a better end -better education for all students. Assessment of school counseling programs IS NOT: the evaluation of an individual professional school counselor. an assault on the professional school counselor’s freedom. a mandate for standardized tests or curricula. all figured out.

Important Assessment Terms
Evaluation: the measurement of worth; indicates that a judgment will be made regarding the effectiveness of a program. Evidence: any data that will help make judgments or decisions; can be quantitative or qualitative. Formative evaluation: evaluative feedback that occurs during the implementation of a program; allows corrective action to occur if a program is shown to be off course. Summative evaluation: feedback collected at a specific endpoint in an evaluation process.

Important Assessment Terms (cont.)
Stakeholder: anyone involved in or potentially benefiting from the school counseling program. Baseline: any data gathered to establish a starting point. Inputs: any resources that go into a program. Pretest: a measure administered before a program is implemented. Posttest: a measure administered after the program or intervention has been completed.

Sources of Evidence People Products Students Teachers Staff
Administration Parents Employers Graduates Community resource people Products Portfolios Performances Use of rating from external examiners Observations Local tests Purchased tests Student self-assessments Surveys Interviews Focus groups Student work

Practical Program Evaluation Considerations
To be of practical value, assessment must be connected to real program concerns as well as the core values of the school or program. Suggestions: Avoid overwhelming the data collectors. Focus on only one or several important questions at a time. Always select measures that will yield reliable and valid scores for the purposes under study. Involve the relevant stakeholders. Use a variety of approaches. Do not reinvent the wheel—use what you are already doing to generate useful data. Don’t be afraid to call upon outside experts to consult on the development and evaluation of a program. Start small and build upon what is found to work. Remember: different can still be effective.

Aggregated Outcomes Aggregation can be a valuable tool in evaluating how well school counseling programs meet higher level standards, such as the ASCA National Standards. Curriculum begins with a statement of standards which are further described through a series of outcomes, which are broken down into measurable objectives. Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 3 Objective 4 Objective 6 Objective 5 Outcome 1 Outcome 2 Outcome 3 Standard 1

Designing Outcome Studies
In most instances, professional school counselors should measure outcomes or results by designing a research-type study. Answering the following questions can help the professional school counselor determine which research design to use: Has the treatment already been implemented? Can I randomly assign participants to treatment conditions? Can I conduct (one or several) pretests, posttests, or both? True experimental designs involve randomization of participants and allow causative conclusions to be reached. Professional school counselors need to select or design an outcome measure with sufficient sensitivity and direct applicability to the issue being studied in order to receive significant results.

Common Designs Used for Outcomes Research
Pretest-posttest single group design Case study Static-group comparison Two-sample pretest-posttest design Nonequivalent control group design Time series design Randomized pretest-posttest control group design Randomized post-test only control group design

Principles to Consider When Developing and Outcome Measure from Scratch
Use simple language. Ask only about things that the respondent can be expected to know. Make the question specific. Define terms that are in any way unclear. Avoid yes-no questions. Avoid double negatives. Don’t ask double-barreled questions. Use wording that has been adopted in the field. Include enough information to jog people’s memories. Look for second-hand opinions only when first hand information is unavailable. Be sensitive to cultural differences. Learn how to deal with difficult respondent groups.

Common Data Collection Methods
Interviews Observations Written questionnaires, surveys and rating scales Program records and schedules Standardized and educator-made tests Academic performance indicators Products and portfolios

Action Research Action research allows professional school counselors to focus on changing social, ecological, or client conditions in particular situations by creating a study and intervention to explore and solve a particular problem, usually in the client’s environment. Involves the analysis of data to improve practice and solve practical problems. Advantages to action research: It requires minimal training, helps develop effective, practice-based solutions for practical problems, and creates a collaborative atmosphere where professionals work together to address and improve conditions affecting students.

Action Research (cont.)
Steps to developing an action research plan: Identify and clarify the research problem Gather data (should be gathered using a specific or particular group of individuals) Analyze and interpret data Create an action plan (should support and validate gathered data) Evaluate and reflect (critically and periodically evaluate the plan’s effectiveness)

Reporting the Results It is important that professional school counselors involve the school counseling program advisory committee (SCPAC) in every step of the report writing process. A comprehensive report may be helpful for analysis by the SCPAC, however a 1-2 page executive summary should also be prepared for administrators, system administrators, and the school community. After results have been reviewed by the SCPAC, professional school counselors, and administration, it is important to release the results of the program outcomes to relevant stakeholder groups at regular intervals.

Reporting the Results (cont.)
Possible ways to disseminate the school counseling program results: Written report Verbal presentation Multimedia presentation Journal articles Web page Videotape Posters Text messaging Newspaper article

Performance Appraisal
The effectiveness of a school counseling program often relies on the competence and efficiency of its implementers. The services provided by, and responsibilities of, the professional school counselor are the most complex of any school employee. It is best practice to have counselor supervisors coordinate in the appraisal of counselor performance. Criteria for any evaluation always should be available well in advance.

Performance Appraisal (cont.)
Most professional school counselor performance appraisals are comprised of a rating system that aggregates or averages responses across a variety of categories or work-related responsibilities. The primary focus of the appraisal system should be to enhance the quality and competence of all those evaluated. It is important that professional school counselors be held to performance standards such as those provided by the ASCA National Model (2005).

Chapter Fourteen Systemic Approaches to Counseling Students Experiencing Complex ad Specialized Problems

Introduction Youth at risk for academic failure and personal/social problems present a substantial dilemma for schools, families, and communities. Professional school counselors must become “coordinators of interdisciplinary resources” to collaborate and develop partnerships with community agencies and organizations providing overlapping services with school personnel. It is important that professional school counselors help educators support, rather than blame and punish, youth at risk.

The Changing Needs of Students and Families
Rising levels of poverty, substance abuse, and domestic and community violence are a few of the major problems affecting mental health during the latter half of the 20th century. 20% of all children and adolescents have significant emotional impairment requiring treatment, but only 1 out of 5 actually receive treatment (Glied & Cuellar, 2003). Half of all students with emotional problems drop out of school. Clinical depression afflicts 3-6 million children, contributing to widespread social and emotional problems, including suicide (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

The Changing Needs of Students and Families (cont.)
Suicide is the 3rd leading cause of death among American adolescents. More than 2,000 adolescents kill themselves each year. Approximately 10,000-20,000 adolescents attempt suicide annually. 30-50% of school-aged children referred to community mental health agencies experience conduct problems and behavior disorders. These problems have been compounded by government funding procedural changes and shortages of affordable community-based mental health services.

The Changing Needs of Students and Families (cont.)
U.S. reports continue to show increasing numbers of youth who are alienated and disconnected from the positive aspects and opportunities of society and have difficult and negative experiences in schools, communities, and families. Students with complex problems come from all socioeconomic classes, ethnic, and racial backgrounds. Anyone could be exposed to community, school and family violence, family dysfunction, drugs or alcohol, teenage suicide, or problems with peers. Through the growing numbers of these youth, it is clear that overall intervention and prevention strategies have been limited in their success.

Resiliency Risk factors are characteristics of students that place them at higher risk of developing mental disorders, academic problems, or personal-social difficulties. It is important to realize that a single risk factor leads to only a slight increase in risk, while multiple factors exponentially increase one’s risk status. Resilience factors are ordinarily more important to assess, because resilience involves characteristics that allow an individual to rebound from adversity, or maintain equilibrium of positive functioning when exposed to traumatic events or environmental stressors. Professional school counselors can help students develop increased resilience or protective factors by helping to build parent, peer and school support mechanisms.

Identifying Students With Complex Problems
There is still ongoing debate and controversy over defining the population of youth at risk. There is no framework for one definition that is inclusive enough to consider all the parameters necessary for a culturally responsive approach to addressing the needs of children at-risk.

Guidelines Describing Youth At Risk
Youth are considered at risk when they lack familial, community, cultural, institutional, and societal supports necessary to develop and grow in an environment that is safe, positive, healthy, and conducive to personal, social, cultural, intellectual, spiritual, economic, and physical development. Healthy growth and development for youth must include the context of family and other social networks, environment, health and nutrition, opportunities for spiritual development, and a positive interaction with the surrounding community, society, and culture within which one lives.

Problems Categorizing Youth At Risk
Five potential problem areas have been identified. First, when using the term, at-risk, there is a danger of discounting resiliency. Secondly, the label, “at risk,” has strong negative associations, which stigmatize youth. Thirdly, many youth are identified as being at risk during adolescence, leaving the prospect of being at risk no longer a question, but rather an assured fact. Fourth, the term at-risk has been used as a catch all phrase that does not differentiate the level of risk one is facing nor the conditions, causes, or problem behaviors associated with that risk.

Problems Categorizing Youth At Risk (cont.)
Fifth, there is not a sensitivity or awareness of cultural differences related to at risk behavior. These problems contribute to confusion in characterizing and identifying youth at risk and are reflected in the lack of effective programming to reduce problems.

Approaches to Working With Youth With Complex Problems
Historically the definition of at-risk has been based on one of four approaches with each having it’s flaws. Predictive - emphasizes what is wrong or missing in the student. Descriptive - focuses on “after-the-fact” reporting. The unilateral technique states that all students are at risk by virtue of living in today’s society. School factors approach states that schools are solely accountable and responsible (Hixson & Tinszmann, 1990).

Working with All Youth Helping students with complex problems cuts across many disciplines including mental health, education, public health, substance abuse, business, social services, juvenile justice, and child and family services.

Working with All Youth (cont.)
Many professionals are disheartened with trying to reach youth at risk. The result of these attitudes is a growing trend toward containment, punishment, and banishment, rather than treatment and prevention. However, all children can be reached. Rather than reject and abandon youth who do not respond to our traditional programs, it is crucial that we develop new and innovative strategies for working with families, communities, and schools to reach those children now regarded as “unreachable.”

Systems Failures: Who Is To Blame?
There are a large number of facilities in the U.S. that have the potential to effectively serve youth at risk. For many years youth at risk have been blamed for their problems, but by blaming children and adolescents who are already powerless, programs not only fail to protect our youth, but add to the existing problems faced by this population. We can no longer blame the youth but must undergo a critical self-examination of intervention strategies and work to design successful interventions.

Systems Failures: Who Is To Blame? (cont.)
Programs that are narrow in focus and aim to address problems in isolation are failing the youth in need of services. It is important to adjust and adapt intervention strategies to the complex needs of the target population from the perspective of an interagency response that is not limited to only schools.

Why Haven’t Needs of Youth At Risk Youth Been Addressed?
There are five major reasons for the lack of commitment to the needs of at-risk youth. First, funding priorities have not been focused on this population. Second, it is difficult to change systems. Third, the nation does not have a consensus moral commitment to working with this population. Fourth, there is a lack of societal, institutional and community commitment to address these problems for a disengaged and essentially powerless population. Finally, graduate level university training of professionals often lacks innovation and responsiveness when addressing these concerns as a part of the curriculum.

Responding to Crisis Situations
Experiences of violence, disaster, and any form of trauma can leave students without sufficient resources needed to cope. Crises that may affect the school community: Suicide Loss Medical emergencies Family trauma School shootings Gang activities Abuse Natural disasters

Definition of Crisis A crisis represents danger because it initially is experienced as an intolerable difficulty that threatens to overwhelm the individual. Unless the person obtains relief, the crisis potentially can cause severe psychological, cognitive, physical, and behavioral consequences. A crisis also presents an opportunity because during times of crisis, individuals are usually more receptive to help. Prompt, skillful interventions increase an individual’s ability to adapt and function in the future. The timing and intensity of the crisis, as well as the number of other stressors the student is experiencing, can affect the complexity of the crisis situation.

Crisis Intervention Crisis intervention refers to the immediate action a professional school counselor takes to “provide the support and direction that the student in crisis requires for him or herself” (Steigerwald, 2004a, p ). Goals of crisis intervention: Help the student to defuse emotions Organize and interpret what has happened Integrate the traumatic event into his or her life story Interpret the event in a way that is meaningful Crisis intervention is time-limited and should not be confused with more long-term postcrisis counseling.

Guidelines to Follow in Crisis Counseling
Respond immediately. Be directive at first. Listen actively and nonjudgmentally as students tell their stories. Follow a holistic approach. Begin work where the student is experiencing the greatest impairment. Get the facts surrounding the crisis. Sustain relationships and resources. Keep a multicultural awareness of the student’s expressions of emotions, perspectives, and behaviors. Do not offer false reassurance. Help students take action. Determine whether the effects are long-lasting and whether a referral for further assessment and counseling is needed. Do not work in isolation. Continue to develop knowledge and skills in crisis intervention.

Crisis Response Plans At times, a crisis affects a larger number of students, and a systemic response from the school is required. Crises that may dictate a systemic response: Homicide or suicide Unexpected death Natural disasters Professional school counselors often play leadership roles in helping schools develop and implement a systemic crisis plan that is comprehensive, well-planned, mobilizes resources, and operates quickly.

Crisis Response Plans (cont.)
Crisis response plans should exist on both a district and school level. The professional school counselor takes a leadership role in the prevention, intervention, and post-incident support of school responses by: Providing individual and group counseling Consulting with administrators, teachers, parents, and other professionals Coordinating services within the school and the community Professional school counselors can be instrumental in leading workshops in the school and community to communicate the school crisis plan to others.

Suicide Professional school counselors, especially at the high school level, need to be prepared to assess suicidal ideation, behaviors, and risk, as well as be ready to intervene decisively. While the student is in the school, it is common practice to be sure the student is in the company of an adult at all times and that contact is made with a parent or guardian as soon as possible. Professional school counselors can be valuable consultants to parents, facilitating transitions to treatment with mental health professionals, community agencies, or psychiatric inpatient facilities.

Assessing Suicidal Ideation and Behaviors
Professional school counselors should pay close attention to student suicidal ideation and behaviors during an initial interview, and revisit the issue periodically during the course of treatment. Nearly all suicides are avoidable. Predicting who will attempt suicide is extremely difficult, which is why experienced professional school counselors take every client with suicidal ideation very seriously.

Demographic Parameters, Clinical Conditions, and Suicide Risk
Females are more likely to attempt suicide; males are more likely to complete a suicide attempt. 75% of all suicides are completed by White males. Individuals who have attempted suicide are more likely to make future attempts. Clients with depression who have experienced a recent loss are at a greater risk of suicide. Certain personality factors may increase risk (perfectionism, impulsivity, pessimism). Clients with personality disorders account for about one-third of completed suicides. Firearms account for nearly ½ of all completed suicides.

Assessing Suicidal Ideation and Behaviors (cont.)
Professional school counselors should also assess for resiliency and protective factors, activities, or people in a student’s life that provide responsibilities, meaning, and hope for the student. When assessing suicidal risk it is essential to determine both the existence and intensity of suicidal thoughts and behaviors and respond quickly and decisively with a treatment plan.

Seven Facets of Suicidal Risk Determination
Verbal communication Has the student verbalized suicidal thoughts overtly or subtly? Plan Is the plan concrete, detailed, and specific? Method Has the student chosen a specific method? Preparation Has the student obtained the means to carry out the plan? Stressors What are the student’s past, present, and future stressors? Mental State What is the student’s degree of hopelessness? Hopelessness To what degree is death viewed as the only way to relieve pain? (Stelmacher, 1995)

Assessing Suicidal Ideation and Behaviors (cont.)
Several instruments useful to professional school counselors: Suicide Probability Scale (SPS) Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation (BSSI) Suicide Ideation Questionnaire (SIQ) At most, scores should be used as helpful guidelines; professional school counselors must use caution because of the potential for clients to underreport the severity of suicidal thoughts and behaviors.

Violence & Threat Assessment
Several highly publicized school shootings over the past decade have heightened public interest and fears related to school safety. Although such instances are rare, students today are more likely to bring a weapon to school, fight on school grounds, and bully or harass other students.

Bullying, Harassment, Abuse, and Dating Violence
At-risk status stems from isolation from societal, cultural, school, family, or peer interactions and institutions. Isolation may lead to victimization and perpetuation of violence in the forms of bullying and harassment, abuse and neglect, and suicide.

Bullying & Harassment Bullying and harassment are caused when an imbalance of power is created. Failure of adults and bystanders to act encourages perpetuation of reputations of abusers as strong individuals, and victims as weak. The quickest way to interrupt the cycle of bullying or harassment is for adults and peers to intervene. Teaching adults and peers the importance of intervening and how to effectively intervene is a critical role of the professional school counselor.

Physical Abuse, Sexual Abuse, & Neglect
Widespread physical and sexual abuse and neglect often result in devastating long-term emotional problems, including anxiety, depression, substance abuse, and other serious psychiatric disturbances. Emotional and social isolation is particularly problematic with individuals who have been abused or neglected, or are witnesses of abuse. Incidences of dating violence have risen over the past decade and affects many teenagers. Victims of dating violence displayed increased risks of suicidal thought and actions, substance use, depression, and risky sexual behavior.

Threat Assessment Violent acts committed on school property increased sharply during the 1980s, but have been steadily declining since 1993. There is no foolproof profile of violent youth or list of risk factors that allows certain identification of youth as violent. Threat assessment, developmental programming, prevention, and intervention are all part of a comprehensive school safety program.

Threat Assessment (cont.)
Most violent students are not planful. Violent students often feel desperate and panic-stricken, fearing that others want to hurt them. In general, males aged have a higher risk of violence. Students from lower socio-economic status have higher associated risks. Students with thought disorders and disorders of impulse present with higher degrees of risk. Those with a history of violent acts are at greater risk for future violent acts. Environmental risk factors include: Unstable family and peer relationships Association with criminal or sexual predators Association with antisocial peers Educational problems Living in an urban environment

Threat Assessment (cont.)
In previous school shooting incidences, most times the attacker revealed his plan to at least one other person not involved in the attack, and most had access to guns and previous experiences using guns. FBI’s classification of threats: Indirect threats Veiled threats Conditional threats Direct threats FBI’s 4-pronged Assessment Model Personality of the Student Family Dynamics School Dynamics Social Dynamics

Suggestions for Prevention of Violence and Intervening with Youth At Risk
Increase the quality and frequency of peer contacts. Create a sense of hope and feelings of togetherness in the school and community. Teach and role-play interpersonal and social skills in real life situations. Establish a clear district-wide policy for dealing with violence, bullying, harassment, abuse, and neglect. Encourage participation in mentoring programs. Develop and train a threat assessment team in each school. Establish a peer mentoring program. Collaborate with law enforcement, faith leaders, and representatives of social service agencies. Create a school climate of trust between adults and students. Help parents, guardians, and other adults in the life of the child make systematic connections in the community. Provide supportive intervention services to potential offenders.

Protective Factors Commitment to school Intelligence
Intolerance toward deviance Positive social orientation Adult mentoring programs Control over career choices Confidence in academic ability Close relationship with a teacher Academic/vocational planning initiated by the end of middle school Role models or mentors in careers of interest Parental influence through support

Substance Abuse Nearly one-third of youth aged years drank alcohol in the previous month. As many as 10% of youth in this age group abuse, or are dependent on alcohol. Professional school counselors may serve more as a referral source than providing actual treatment in the school context. Professional school counselors must at least become proficient in substance abuse assessment. Assessment of substance abuse is best conducted early in the counseling process.

Substance Abuse (cont.)
Since self-report of substance use is fairly reliable, professional school counselors often use a straightforward interviewing approach. A brief interview method designed for alcohol abuse screening is CAGE. Have you ever felt you need to Cut down on your drinking? Have people Annoyed you by criticizing your drinking? Have you ever felt bad or Guilty about drinking? Have you ever had a drink first thing in the morning to steady your nerves or get rid of a hangover (Eye opener)? Client responses can lead the professional counselor to suspect alcohol or other drug abuse and use more formalized or systematic data collection procedures.

Grief Work and Children from Changing Families
Professional school counselors encounter children with grief reactions quite frequently for a variety of reasons. Most grief reactions share commonalities, and there are strategies and interventions professional school counselors can use with groups or individuals.

Understanding the Effects of Divorce
Research shows that most children adjust well to divorce, although older children experience more negative outcomes. The majority of children from divorced families are emotionally well-adjusted, however a number of risk and resiliency factors play into the mix. When compared to nondivorced peers, adolescents from divorced families demonstrate: More depression Greater conflict with parents Poorer school performance Higher levels of aggression and disruptive behavior It is critical for professional school counselors to understand that 75-80% of children and young adults from divorced families: Do not experience major psychological problems Aspire to and achieve career or higher educational goals Enjoy intimate relationships as adults

Understanding the Effects of Divorce (cont.)
Risk Factors Interparental conflict Gender Poor quality parenting Lack of contact with father Protective Factors Interparental cooperation and diminished conflict following the divorce Competent parenting from custodial parents Contact with, and competent parenting from, nonresidential parents Having a trusting relationship with a nonparental adult and peers Positive school experiences

A Primer on Grief Work Grief as a development process:
Stage 1 : Shock and denial Stage 2: Anger Stage 3: Guilt Stage 4: Hopelessness/Depression Stage 5: Acceptance Many of the physical symptoms associated with grief reactions are similar to those of depression: Fatigue Loss or increase in appetite Loss of concentration Feelings of hopelessness and isolation Frequent sighing or breathlessness Aches and pains

A Primer on Grief Work (cont.)
The intensity of the grief experience is usually determined by: One’s relationship to a person The intensity of or ambivalence to that relationship The dependency or security provided by that relationship How the loss occurred One’s personality History of dealing with grief experiences Individual characteristics Obstacles to effective grieving: Sudden loss Lack of finality or uncertain loss Lack of support The perception that grief is a weakness and should be avoided or denied

Professional school counselors should assess the situation to decide whether a referral should be made. In the context of developmental grief reactions, the professional school counselor should continuously remind the student that the symptoms and reactions are normal and life and emotional health will get better in time. Professional school counselors can help students resolve the 4 primary tasks of grieving Accept the reality of the loss. Experience (not avoid) the pain of the grief. Adjust to life without the lost object or condition. Emotionally relocate the loss and move on with life.

Other suggestions for professional school counselors: Encourage them to find a way to resolve the loss Encourage social support Bibliotherapy Journal writing Help the student keep busy in meaningful activities and take care of their physical health Be alert for signs of complicated grief or other signs of trouble 519

Dropout Prevention Risk factors: Preventive factors:
High rates of absenteeism and tardiness Low grades A history of course failures Limited parental support Low participation in extracurricular activities Alcohol or drug problems Negative attitudes toward school High levels of mobility Grade retention Preventive factors: More time in general education for students with disabilities Provision of tutoring services Training for competitive employment and independent living Attending a school that maintained high expectations for all students Receiving significant support from teachers

Dropout Prevention (cont.)
Most dropout interventions seek to: Enhance students’ sense of belonging in school Foster the development of relationships with teachers, administrators, and peers Improve academic success Address personal problems through counseling Provide skill-building opportunities in behavior and social skills Categories of dropout interventions Personal/affective Academic Family outreach School structure Work related

Dropout Prevention (cont.)
Professional school counselors can help develop and implement school-wide dropout prevention programs, using risk screenings to identify students at higher risk, and promoting some of the key components related to school completion. Key dropout preventions/interventions Environmental support Counseling support Enhancing relationships and affiliation Providing/supporting vocational programming Bolster outside influences

Conflict Resolution and Peer Mediation Program Development
Most schools implement some systemic or developmental program to help students mediate and resolve conflict. The development of any conflict resolution or peer mediation program or intervention should reflect the unique contextual needs of the school or district to be served.

Program Development: Assessing Climate
Necessary to understand the structure of competition in the school. Professional school counselors must work to understand the reasons for conflicts and types of conflict within the school climate.

Systemic Change Efforts to create a high level of personal and community awareness and participation in conflict resolution and peer mediation programs can stimulate collective power, and share information about similarities and differences that is useful in formulating solutions. Peer mediation and conflict resolution programs can change the community as a whole. Teacher and administrative support is vital.

Diversity Considerations
Essential that peer mediators represent the multiple diversities of the school. Three factors are necessary: Recruitment, selection, and training. Diverse populations of schools—differentiated by age, race or ethnicity, disability, socioeconomic status, and academic ability—need to be reflected in programming.

Recruitment Enlist the help of teachers.
Only students likely to be selected should be encouraged. Empower students to be leaders and role models.

Selection Should reflect a cross-section of student population.
Student characteristics should include leadership skills, maturity, communication skills, responsibility, perspective taking, empathy, and problem-solving skills. High academic achievement is not necessarily a prerequisite for selection.

Training Multicultural sensitivity should be integrated.
Special attention to patterns of speech and issues specific to the special needs of non-English-speaking students or students for whom English is a second language must be considered.

Program Implementation
Plans must be well documented to be linked with school-wide data. Cyclical process including: development of a mission statement, the collection of data used to set goals, the prioritizing of goals, training for skill development, an implementation schedule, evaluation, and follow-up. Enlist the input of all stakeholders.

Training for Program Coordinators
Well trained coordinators can take a leadership role. Need for strategies and information that is practical, easy to use, and can be directly applied (King, Wagner, & Hedrick, 2001).

Student Access to Services
Ensure that programs serve the entire school community. Administrative support is necessary. Sends a message of shared values and beliefs.

Program Evaluation As professional school counselors work to link school counseling programs to the mission of schools, evidence of concrete measures that contribute to creating a safe learning environment is essential. Regular program evaluation reports should be completed and presented to all school personnel.

Multicultural Implications
To be truly effective, conflict resolution and violence prevention efforts must “adjust” to the diverse cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic influences of society and involve every segment of society. Need to educate students in a global context. Must teach students how to manage and resolve conflicts through multiple contexts that move beyond merely tolerating diversity but to one that seeks out and celebrates the rich dimensions of multiple diversities.

Recommendations for Professional School Counselors: Generating Effective Programs
1. Develop authentic partnerships with community agencies. 2. Facilitate interdisciplinary collaboration by being the Coordinator of Interdisciplinary Services. 3. Maintain a strong multicultural focus. 4. Be a systems change agent to better serve the needs of youth at risk (Bemak, 1998; Lee, 1998). 5. Empower clients by giving up power (Bemak, 2000). 6. Look for short-term successes.

More Recommendations for Professional School Counselors: Generating Effective Programs
7. Become an advocate by fighting for services and funds for youth at risk. 8. Research and document outcomes by researching and documenting what interventions work and which do not. 9. Assume responsibility for successes and failures by discontinuing interventions when they do not work and then implementing effective intervention strategies.

Conclusion It is clear that the issues encountered by youth at-risk in the U.S. continue to present serious problems for schools, families, and communities. It is essential that professional school counselors design innovative service systems to effectively address the complex and multifaceted needs of the at-risk population. It is clear that many of the existing prevention and intervention programs are ineffective and unsuccessful, given the high numbers of disengaged and marginalized youth. Therefore, a new approach to working with this population is critical.

The Professional School Counselor and Students with Disabilities
Chapter Fifteen The Professional School Counselor and Students with Disabilities

Poor Outcomes for Students with Disabilities
The most common disabilities affecting more than 90% of school-aged students are: Learning disabilities Emotional/behavioral disorders Mild mental retardation Language disorders Other health impairments including AD/HD. Students with disabilities struggle with academic achievement, and frequently receive inadequate education services. Dropout rates range from 15% of students with visual impairments to 56% of students with emotional/behavioral disorders.

Poor Outcomes for Students with Disabilities (cont.)
When these students become adults, they have lower rates of post-secondary educational involvement and higher rates of unemployment and underemployment. Despite a long history of poor outcomes in the academic arena, students with disabilities are capable of positive school and adult outcomes. In the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA), Congress emphasized the importance of education results for children with disabilities, and their right to participate in and contribute to society. Through IDEA and the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), Congress mandated the delivery of special education to students with disabilities.

Serving Students with Disabilities
Educational programming for a child with a disability requires an individualized approach to all identified needs. A multidisciplinary team consists of: The parent(s) At least one general educator At least one special educator Related service providers Transition service participants (for students age > 16 years) The student (whenever appropriate) Any additional individuals who have knowledge or special expertise with the student

Serving Students with Disabilities (cont.)
The multidisciplinary team is responsible for: Determining what assessments are needed Ordering the assessments Reviewing the findings Determining whether the student meets the criteria for “a child with a disability” and is eligible for special education services Developing the student’s Individualized Education Program (IEP) The professional school counselor may have roles relating to the team, directly to the child, or indirectly supporting the child through others on the team.

Roles of the Professional School Counselor Regarding Special Needs Students
Provide individual/group counseling Make referrals Serve on multidisciplinary team Counsel parents and families Advocate for students Assist with behavior modification plans Provide feedback for team Serve as consultant to parents/staff Assist with transition plans

Federal Legislation Education Laws
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) Provides federal funding and requires states to guarantee a free, appropriate, public education to students who need special education and related services because of an eligible disability. Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)

Federal Legislation (cont.)
Civil Rights Laws Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504) Provides no federal funding, but does mandate programs receiving federal funding under other laws may not exclude an individual with a disability from participating in the program. Also requires individuals with disabilities be provided reasonable accommodations to allow them access to these programs Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) Extends protection from discrimination because of disabilities to all public and private schools (religious schools excluded)

Major Differences between IDEA and Section 504
Focus: educational remediation Attempts to address gaps in skills or abilities by assuring appropriate services Eligibility limited to specific list of disabilities Section 504 Focus: prevention of discrimination Attempts to level the playing field for students with disabilities in order for them to achieve at their ability level Eligibility not limited to specific list of disabilities

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA)
Provides that eligible students receive “special education,” which is defined as “specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability, including instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals, and institutions, and in other settings…” (IDEA, 2004). Requires documentation that nearly all disabilities affect educational performance.

Handicapping Conditions under IDEA
Autism Deaf-blindness Deafness Developmental delay Emotional disturbance Hearing impairment Mental retardation Multiple disabilities Orthopedic impairment Other health impairment Specific learning disability Speech or language impairment Traumatic brain injury Visual impairment including blindness

IDEA (cont.) When a student is determined eligible for services under IDEA, the school system is required to provide him/her a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE). The law uses the word “appropriate,” not “best,” therefore IDEA does not require optimal programming, only appropriate programming that enables a child to make reasonable educational progress. The requirement under law for school systems is to educate students, not rehabilitate them.

Special Education Process
Identification Request for evaluation Screening Multidisciplinary team reviews records Notification and Consent Written consent from parent for all areas to be assessed Assessment Tests administered in non-discriminatory manner Eligibility determination Determined by multidisciplinary team IEP Development Team creates individualized program to address academic and related issues

Section 504 and the Americans with Disabilities Act
A student is eligible under Section 504 if he has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities. All students found eligible for services under IDEA are qualified under Section 504 because they have a substantial impairment of a major life function – learning. A student is also qualified under Section 504 if he/she has a record of having such an impairment or is regarded as having such an impairment. Eligibility under Section 504 is not limited to a specific list of disabilities.

Section 504 (cont.) Schools receiving federal funding are required by Section 504 to provide free appropriate public education. Although there is a clear overlap with the term “special education” in both IDEA and Section 504, in practice students who require only accommodations and support are served under Section 504. Section 504 is a civil rights statute that addresses discrimination in access to programs and services, not remediation of learning.

504 Plan Services Provided
Counseling services Physical recreational athletics Transportation Health services Recreational activities Special interest groups/Clubs Referrals to other agencies Employment of students

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
Defines access to and confidentiality of student educational records. Parents have the right to control access to academic records until the student is 18 years of age, at which time the rights are transferred to the student. It is important that records are in a safe, locked location and that only approved individuals have a key.

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
Four issues of particular importance to professional school counselors regarding FERPA: Parents have a right to inspect and review all educational records, and to decide if the school may share the report in the future. Any personal confidential notes a school counselor may have must not be shared with anyone at any time, or it will be deemed an education record and be placed in the student’s record. The parent has the right to challenge what is in the school records and to have anything that can be proven to be inaccurate or misleading removed.

Related Services for Students with Disabilities under IDEA and Section 504
IDEA defines related services as “transportation, and such developmental, corrective, and other supportive services as may be required to assist a child with a disability to benefit from special education.” Services include: audiology counseling early identification and assessment interpreting services medical services occupational therapy orientation and mobility services parent counseling and training physical therapy psychological services recreation rehabilitation counseling school nurse services social work services speech language services and transportation

Related Services The following three service areas are often performed by professional school counselors for students with disabilities: Counseling services: focus on needs, interests, and issues related to various stages of student growth. Parent counseling and training: can help parents enhance the vital role they play in the lives of their children. Rehabilitation counseling services: generally includes assessment of student’s attitudes, abilities, and needs; vocational training; and identifying job placements.

Transition Services under IDEA 2004
According to IDEA, “transition services” means a coordinated set of activities for a child with a disability that: is designed to be within a results-oriented process, is based on the individual child’s needs, and includes instruction, related services, and community experiences. Beginning with the first IEP until the child is 16 years, and updated annually thereafter, each student’s IEP must include: measurable postsecondary goals, the transition services needed to achieve those goals, and a statement that the child has been informed of his/her rights under State law, once the student reaches the age of majority.

Support Services for Children with Disabilities which May Involve the Professional School Counselor
Advocacy Assessment Career counseling Clinical case management Clinical support Collaboration Crisis intervention Decision making Discipline and manifestation determination Dropout prevention Direct services Individualized Education Programming (IEP) IEP team membership Parent counseling and training Positive behavioral support Referral Safekeeping confidential records Self-determination training Transition program planning

Providing Services to Support Students with Disabilities
Responsibilities of a professional school counselor can be divided into the following three categories: Collaboration on the multidisciplinary team Providing direct services to students Supporting students indirectly by providing case management, consultation to teachers, and training parents

Multidisciplinary Team Responsibilities
Developing and using Response to Intervention (RTI). RTI is a multi-tier approach to help students in both general and special education who are struggling academically and behaviorally through early identification and support. Learners experiencing academic and behavioral problems receive interventions at increasing levels of intensity to address problems and return their learning trajectory to normal levels. Early interventions are provided by school personnel from various disciplines.

Professional school counselors assist in the RTI process by: Providing all students with a standards-based guidance curriculum. Analyzing academic and behavioral data to identify struggling students. Identifying and collaborating on research-based intervention strategies that are implemented by school staff. Evaluating academic and behavioral progress after interventions. Revising interventions as appropriate. Referring to school and community services as appropriate. Collaborating with administrators about RTI design and implementation. Advocating for equitable education for all students and working to remove systemic barriers.

Assessing Students with Disabilities: Responsibilities of the Professional School Counselor: Carry out and/or interpret functional behavioral assessments. Interpret educational skill assessments. Carry out and/or interpret curriculum-based assessments. Explain psychological testing. Carry out and/or interpret counseling assessments. Carry out structured observations of the student. Carry out a student records review. Help stress the need for assessing student strengths. Assess peer attitudes toward students with disabilities. Collaborate with others using portfolio-, performance-, and curriculum-based assessments.

Assessing Students with Disabilities (cont.)
Professional school counselors may assess students with disabilities on a wide range of areas: Observable behavior The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), part of the Achenbach System of Empirically-Based Assessment (ASEBA) by Achenbach and Rescorla (2001) assesses nine observable behavior areas. Social, emotional, and behavioral functioning Many other instruments are available to measure these specific areas. Most of the survey instruments used by counselors to describe how a student perceives the situation (rather than evaluating or diagnosing) only require training on the instrument. Measuring the attitudes of students without disabilities toward students with disabilities to find out how much cooperative and beneficial interaction affects students with disabilities is also helpful to professional school counselors in order to develop a positive attitude toward these students.

Assessing Students with Disabilities (cont.)
Behavioral Assessment Due to changes in IDEA in 1997, when a disciplinary action results in extended periods of removal from school (e.g., suspension), the IEP team must meet within 10 days to: Formulate a functional behavioral assessment plan for developing an intervention plan, or Review and revise a behavior intervention plan, if one already exists.

Positive Behavioral Support
Three primary occasions that require the provision of “Positive Behavioral Supports” under IDEA: The development of school wide systems of support Professional school counselors serve on the school improvement team Helps provide staff development activities Provides assistance for student well-being Positive behavioral support to individual students Professional school counselors collect information for Functional Behavioral Assessment Positive behavioral support after a serious behavior Professional school counselors aid in development of the Behavior Improvement Plan

School-wide Systems of Positive Behavioral Support
Promote positive behavior among all students Very effective at: Improving school climate Decreasing instances of office referral by 50% Preventing 80% of problematic student behaviors (antisocial behavior, vandalism, aggression, and alcohol, tobacco, and drug use) Two models for comprehensive behavior management systems: PAR model (Rosenberg & Jackman, 2003) Best Behavior Program (Sprague & Golly, 2004)

School-wide Systems of Positive Behavioral Support (cont.)
Seven major components in the development of effective school-wide systems: An agreed upon and common approach to discipline. A positive statement of purpose. A smaller number of positively stated expectations for all students and staff. Procedures for teaching these expectations to students. A continuum of procedures for encouraging displays and maintenance of these expectations. A continuum of procedures for discouraging displays of rule-violating behavior. Procedures for monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of the discipline system on a regular basis.

Positive Behavioral Support to Individual Students
When a student’s behavior interferes with learning, the IEP team must consider the need for a targeted intervention comprised of strategies and support systems to address disruptive or problematic behavior in children with disabilities. In order to address the specific target behavior, this involves: the completion of the functional behavioral assessment (FBA), and the development of a behavior improvement plan (BIP). The FBA/BIP process has also been used to successfully reduce disruptive classroom behaviors in students with mild disabilities.

The Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) Process
Information obtained during the FBA process is used to develop strategies to: prevent the occurrence of the behavior, and substitute more appropriate behaviors when similar conditions arise. The steps in the FBA process include: Identifying and describing the problematic behavior. Identifying the conditions and settings when the behavior does and does not occur. Generating a hypothesis regarding the “function” of the behavior to the child. Testing the hypothesized function of the behavior by manipulating the environmental antecedents and consequences.

The Behavior Improvement Plan (BIP) Process
Used to provide information to educators and parents to address the student’s target behavior. Steps include: Identifying ways to prevent or minimize the occurrence of the behavior. Provide appropriate methods to change the behavior. Assist the student in building more appropriate behaviors to meet the same function as the inappropriate behaviors.

Implementing the FBA and BIP Processes Effectively
Identify the case manager responsible for overall management. Describe expected outcomes and goals for the plan. Identify the problem. Conduct the FBA. Identify expected outcomes/goals. Develop interventions. Identify barriers to plan implementation. Specify the interventions used to achieve the goals. Specify person/people responsible for specific interventions. Specify a review date. Implement BIP. Collect follow-up data on the effects of the BIP. Review data and modify the plan as necessary. (Sugai et al., 2000)

Positive Behavioral Support after a Serious Behavior
According to IDEA, FBAs and BIPs are required in connection with disciplinary removals for drugs and weapons offenses, for offenses involving serious bodily injury, or for any combinations of school removals totaling 10 days. The IEP team must meet within 10 days to conduct the FBA and formulate a BIP. If a behavior plan already exists, the team must review and revise. This process follows the same series of steps, but is less preventive in nature.

Collaboration and Group Decision Making
The professional school counselor must be a supportive member of a group decision-making process whose goal is to enable a student with a disability to learn. A primary task of the professional school counselor is to help the multidisciplinary team understand the whole student, especially the individual assets of the student that are sometimes not readily apparent in paper reviews. Professional school counselors should consider whether peer tutoring or some other available services would address the student’s needs without labeling the student with a disability. However, no student may be refused the opportunity to receive special education under IDEA when qualified.

Manifestation Meetings
Manifestation hearings are multidisciplinary team meetings convened because a student has been excluded from school for disciplinary reasons for 10 or more days during one school year. The meeting must occur within 10 days of the student’s removal from school. The purpose is to determine whether the student’s behavior was caused by, or had a direct and substantial relationship to, the student’s disability. If it is decided the behavior was caused by the student’s disability, the student is reinstated with all information related to the disciplinary issue removed from the discipline record and cumulative file.

Manifestation Meetings (cont.)
If it is determined the student’s disability did not cause the behavior, the student may be suspended or expelled unless the team finds one of two situations occurred: the student’s IEP was not implemented OR the team determines that the IEP did not provide the student with a FAPE.

Rules of Continued Education: Under IDEA, if a student with a disability is removed from school for more than 10 days, she must continue to receive programs and services that will allow her to progress toward meeting the goals on the IEP. Under Section 504, if the problem behavior is not a result of the student’s handicapping condition, then the student may be excluded, and there is no requirement for additional educational services.

A student’s behavior may relate to a disability and still result in removal from school for 45 school days if: the student is involved in a drug offense, the student is involved in a weapon’s offense, or the student’s behavior inflicted serious bodily injury. During these meetings, the professional school counselor is responsible for helping the team better understand the nature of the student’s emotionally or behaviorally based disability.

Determining Need for Counseling Services for Students with Disabilities
When considering individual counseling for a student, the professional school counselor should work with the family and staff to construct a list of social, emotional, or behavioral issues and concerns affecting the student’s educational performance. A review and prioritization of this data can help the team to: Clarify the problem Identify ways to involve parents and other staff Recognize the need for implementation in multiple settings Reveal the extent of the needs and the impact on types and amounts of services needed It is important for the professional school counselor to help the team remain focused on the purpose of school counseling for children with disabilities—to enable the student to learn.

Typical Areas Addressed by Counseling Goals
Anger management Stress/anxiety management Respecting authority Following school rules Self determination/life planning Career awareness/vocational development Coping skills Frustration tolerance Interpersonal skills Family issues regarding post-school outcomes Self esteem

Counselor Concerns about Providing IEP Services
The IEP team, not any one individual, determines what services the student is to receive. In certain cases, professional school counselors may disagree with some components of the IEP, however they must follow the IEP as written until it is changed. Under the 2004 provisions of IDEA, nonsubstantive changes can be made to the IEP without another meeting. It is important for professional school counselors to limit their role and assure they do not perform activities outside of their area of qualifications.

IEP Development: Writing Counseling IEP Goals
IDEA specifically requires the IEP team to consider: The strengths of the child The concerns of the parents for enhancing the education of their child The results of the initial evaluation or most recent evaluation of the child The academic, developmental, and functional needs of the child Goals focus on student’s expected achievement in one year’s time and are generally written in broad, measurable terms Goals are intended to establish what the IEP team, along with the parent and child, thinks the student should accomplish in a year. IDEA requires goals to address all areas of identified needs in academic and functional skill areas which may include: Adaptive skills Classroom behavior Social/interpersonal skills Self-determination Vocational skills

IEP Development: Writing Counseling IEP Goals (cont.)
Each annual goal should include five components: Direction of change desired Deficit or excess Present level Expected level Resources needed The direction change is either: increase (e.g., social skills, impulse control) decrease (e.g., hitting, temper tantrums, days absent) maintain (e.g., attention span, attendance)

Evaluation Procedures
IEPs must include evaluation procedures and schedule for determining, at least on an annual basis, whether the goals and objectives are being achieved. The evaluation procedure selected must be appropriate for the behavior or skill in question. Some evaluation procedures that might be used for different objectives include: Direct observation Formal or informal assessments Permanent products The frequency of data collection should be determined by: The importance of the objective in question. The amount of additional staff time that it takes.

Specifying IEP Services
IDEA requires that the IEP include a statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services to be provided to or on behalf of the child. The IEP must describe: the student’s participation in regular education programs; a list of the projected dates for the initiation of service; and the anticipated duration of the services. At the IEP meeting, the team will determine: The frequency and intensity of counseling sessions. Whether the services will be provided individually or in group sessions. Whether the service is delivered directly or via consultation with another staff member or parent.

Individualized Transition Program Planning
IDEA requires the IEP team to create a transition plan for a student with a disability by the time the student is 16 years old; Section 504 has no transition requirements. Students, as well as representatives of other programs involved, must be invited to the IEP meeting when transition plans are discussed. The transition plan is intended to address all areas of the student’s post high school life, including: Education Career Independent living Recreation Community involvement

Individualized Transition Program Planning (cont.)
Professional school counselors can help the team by: Assessing student career interests Developing appropriate transition goals Providing resources and connections to adult services as needed Helping the student with personal adjustment, self-concept development, self-determining training, career exploration, and job coaching Since a transition plan focuses on the individual’s present needs and preferences, assessment is required (many times provided by the counselor), such as: Interest inventories Interviews of the student and parents Review of work history and work habits Review of progress towards graduation and postsecondary acceptance Self-determination assessment Other information specific to the student as needed

Individualized Transition Program Planning (cont.)
Transition program planning is developed after information collected on the student’s and family’s hopes and expectations for the future are synthesized with assessment results. Transition planning includes goals related to: Personal development Independence Self-determination Social skill development Other needs for adult independent functioning

Secondary Transition Programming
IDEA requires transition programming to support the needs of the students and enable them to meet their specific goals. The following is a list of recommended practices intended to be integrated into secondary programs serving students with disabilities. Vocational training Parent involvement Interagency collaboration Social skills training Paid work experience Follow-up employment services Integrated settings Community-based instruction Vocational assessment Community-referenced curriculum Career education curricula and experience Employability skills training Academic skills training

Secondary Transition Programming (cont.)
Hughes et al. (1997) identified some socially validated transition support strategies that secondary school counselors can incorporate into any school program: Identify and provide social support Identify environmental support and provide environmental changes Promote acceptance Observe the student’s opportunities for choice Provide choice-making opportunities Identify the student’s strengths and areas needing support Teach self-management Provide opportunities to learn and practice social skills

National Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition (NASET)
NASET is an excellent resource for schools and professionals serving secondary students with disabilities. NASET is a voluntary coalition of 30 national organizations representing general education, special education, career and technical education, youth development, postsecondary education, workforce development, and families. It was formed specifically to promote high quality and effective secondary education and transition services.

National Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition (cont.)
In its Standards for Secondary Education and Transition, NASET has identified benchmarks that reflect quality secondary education and transition services for all students in five areas of adult living: Schooling Career preparatory experiences Youth development and youth leadership Family involvement Connecting activities and service coordination

High School Programming
Recent data: Students with disabilities have significantly increased the number of academic courses they are taking in math, science, and foreign language. Possibly due to the effect of increased requirements for access to general curriculum under No Child Left Behind. The numbers of students taking vocational courses in recent years has decreased. Likely a fallout of the increase in courses taken in the general curriculum by students with disabilities. Cause for concern as vocational programming can significantly increase positive postsecondary outcomes for students with disabilities.

High School Programming (Cont’d)
Professional school counselors should: advocate for curricular programming to address individual student needs help families to determine whether goals should relate primarily to post-secondary education or to employment and independent living.

Post-secondary Educational Programming
Students with disabilities attend college and other post-secondary educational programs at rates far below their non-disabled peers. It is critical that students hold high expectations for their continued education. Excellent resources are available to help students identify appropriate colleges, seek reasonable accommodations, and access support services, including: DO-IT (Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, & Technology) Post-ITT (Postsecondary Innovative Transition Technology project) HEATH Resource Center (Higher Education and Adult Training for People with Disabilities)

Post-secondary Educational Programming (cont.)
Professional school counselors can help students by providing specialized information to parents and students with disabilities regarding: Readiness for college Information on disability disclosure during the application process Methods to interview effectively Ways to document a disability at the post-secondary level Information on how to identify available accommodations in various colleges Tips for finding a “good match” for a specific student’s special needs Tips on supporting transition to college: Teach students about their disability and compensatory strategies Teach students to self-advocate Teach students about the law Help students select postsecondary schools wisely

Career Counseling Professional school counselors must understand the implication of the disability on a potential career. Professional school counselors must encourage and support while remaining realistic. Excellent resources include: Kids & Youth Pages from U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Outlook Handbook Teenager’s Guide to the Real World Careers Job and Career Resources for Teenagers Resources specifically for students with disabilities: Partners in Employment Life Skills for Vocational Success

Vocational/Career Planning
There are many online and software programs available to assist students in career planning which typically include interest inventories, career-trait surveys, and sometimes decision-making support. In addition, there are either school system or local agency staff trained to do vocational aptitude testing of students with disabilities. Other information necessary for career planning: Interview data from parents regarding their expectations and dreams for their child Student’s stated career goal History of work experience Reports of work habits and behaviors Observation of the student’s functioning at the work-site

Vocational/Career Planning (cont.)
Involvement of staff from the Division of Rehabilitative Services is essential in: Obtaining linkages to adult services Determining funding for post-secondary educational or vocational programs Assisting families with ongoing transition needs beyond high school Providing information on how to access Social Security Insurance and Social Security Disability Insurance ( can allow students with disabilities to: Obtain adult vocational training programs Access job coaching and other adult services Pay for college Defer income to pay for disability related expenses

Vocational Training The School-to-Work Opportunities Act (1994) focuses on coordinated efforts between schools and community to design and provide education to all students and provides for a smooth transition from school to work. Students are provided with specific job training and experiences through vocational work placements, job coaching, and other related activities.

Self-Determination According to the Division of Career Development and Transition of the Council for Exceptional Children, self-determination is a combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that enable a person to engage in goal directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior. Research has found that helping students acquire and exercise self-determination skills leads to more positive educational outcomes, including higher rates of employment, postsecondary education, and independent living.

Self-Determination (cont.)
Elements of self-determination include: Self-awareness Self-evaluation Choice and decision making Goal setting and attainment Problem solving Self-advocacy IEP planning Excellent resources available online to promote self-determination in students with disabilities: The Person-Centered Planning Education Site The Self-Advocacy Synthesis Project Student-Led IEPs: A Guide for Student Involvement

Self-Determination (cont.)
Strategies professional school counselors can use to help students develop self-determination: Use a structured curriculum to directly teach skills and attitudes. Use assessments to determine student needs. Prepare students for the IEP planning and implementation process. Meet with students weekly to discuss student goal attainment and help students implement strategies. Provide the student with information on his disability. Help the student access available resources. Help students adjust strategies, schedules, or supports to help attain their goals. Encourage families to promote choice and decision making. Allow for student selection of course electives and program of study.

Information About the Special Education Process and the Right of Appeal
Many families seek information about special education services for students with disabilities. The following are organizations that provide assistance to families, educators, agency workers, and professional school counselors: The National Association of State Directors of Special Education The Council for Exceptional Children The National Dissemination Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities The ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education

Information About the Special Education Process and the Right of Appeal (cont.)
Professional school counselors can find local advocacy groups and public law organization to assist parents at: IDEA and Section 504 require that families be given a statement of their rights and means of appeal for use if the parent has a disagreement with the identification, classification, program or services developed for or provided to the student. Parents may resolve their concerns without using the dispute resolution processes by appealing directly to the school principal or district supervisory personnel. However, more formal processes exist under IDEA and Section 504.

Information About the Special Education Process and the Right of Appeal (cont.)
Forms of appeal under IDEA: Resolution session Mediation Due process Hearing process where the disagreement is presented to an impartial hearing officer. Appeals can go to state or federal court. Investigation processes State or federal offices assign investigators who determine whether appropriate laws and regulations have been followed. Similar processes exist under Section 504

General Issues for Professional School Counselors Serving Students with Disabilities
Cultural Considerations Professional school counselors need to be sensitive to cultural considerations because families from different cultures may approach identification of a child with a disability differently. Counselors must consider language differences and seek help to interpret both language and culture. It is important for counselors to understand how family needs are shaped by the context of their subculture. Counselors can help the family of diverse students cope with the maze of bureaucracy that public education may present to someone from another culture. The Council for Exceptional Children ( has a Division for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Exceptional Learners that can be a great resource.

Helping Students With Mental and Emotional Disorders
Chapter Sixteen Helping Students With Mental and Emotional Disorders

Helping Students The professional school counselor’s primary responsibility is to help students learn. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and school reform movement has increased the pressure to focus on academic achievement for all students. Environment and mental health issues affect an increasing number of children and are affecting student achievement, which makes it difficult for schools to provide an appropriate education for each child.

Prevalence of Mental Disorders and Mental Health Issues in Children and Adolescents
One in five children and adolescents has a mild to moderate mental health issue; one in twenty has a serious mental or emotional illness. Of the children, ages 9-17, who have a serious emotional illness, only 20% receive mental health services. Children are presenting with mental health concerns at a younger age.

Prevalence of Mental Disorders and Mental Health Issues in Children and Adolescents (cont.)
Suicide is the third leading cause of death for adolescents after accidents and homicide. It is estimated that 7% of adolescents who develop a Major Depressive Disorder will commit suicide and that 90% of teens who commit suicide have a mental disorder. High incidences of violent, aggressive and disruptive behavior is another reflection of children’s emotional difficulties.

Factors Contributing to a High Incidence of Emotional Disturbance
Three factors are related to the prevalence of mental disorders and mental health issues affecting children and adolescents: Environmental factors (e.g., breakdown of the family, homelessness, poverty, violence in the community) are rising and are likely to result in an increase in mental health needs. Low-cost mental health services are limited. Special education legislation focusing attention on children’s special needs has increased.

Factors Contributing to a High Incidence of Emotional Disturbance (cont.)
Children from ethnic and cultural minority groups are at risk for mental disorders and are overrepresented in special education programs. Children and adolescents of color have been unserved or underserved and have had their emotional difficulties overlooked or misdiagnosed. Estimates suggest that 48% of students with emotional problems drop out of school and that students with severe emotional problems miss more days of school than those in any other disability category. Lack of adequate community-based mental health resources puts pressure on schools to provide those services.

The Professional School Counselor’s Role
The role of professional school counselors is in a period of transformation. The focus has shifted from emphasis on a personal growth model that promoted individual development in the 1950s and 1960s to a more recent focus on a comprehensive developmental model with emphasis on educational goals. There are arguments as to whether or not professional school counselors are doing enough to meet the complex needs of at-risk children. Dryfoos (1994) envisions full-service schools where community mental health resources combine forces with school and other agencies to provide adequate mental health services for students.

Barriers To Providing Mental Health Services In The Schools
The ability of professional school counselors to meet the needs of students with mental health issues is limited by: Workload and non-counseling-related responsibilities Duties beyond those described by professional standards, such as lunch duty, bus duty, after-school functions, and administrative duties. Fragmentation and duplication of services and programs School- and community-based services and programs often have been developed in isolation, without consideration of existing services and programs.

Barriers To Providing Mental Health Services In The Schools
Discrepancy between the professional school counselors’ need to understand mental disorders and their knowledge base Not all professional school counselors possess the knowledge, experience, and expertise needed to recognize the mental health needs of students.

Current & Future Trends In The Way Services Are Provided
Some schools have increased their use of community and private resources by hiring psychiatrists and using outside consultants to treat students. A current service model includes professionals from different disciplines collaborating to promote mental health in children and adolescents (Flaherty et al., 1998).

Benefits Of The Direct Service Model
Students who attend schools with fully implemented mental health programs are more academically successful and have a greater sense of belonging and safety. Comprehensive community-based services to children cut state hospital admissions and inpatient bed days by between 39 and 79 percent and reduced average days of detention by 40 percent. In order to maximize effectiveness, professional school counselors need to develop interdisciplinary and interagency relationships and practices.

What Professional School Counselors Need To Know About Mental & Emotional Disorders
Professional school counselors must understand normal social, emotional, cognitive, and physical development. In addition, they should possess knowledge about mental disorders and mental health issues affecting youth. Professional school counselors need to be aware of the range of mental disorders in order to identify students experiencing emotional problems, interpret diagnostic information, and recommend school-based interventions.

What Professional School Counselors Need To Know About Mental & Emotional Disorders (cont.)
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) contains the criteria for diagnosing disorders. The professional school counselor generally is not expected or trained to make diagnoses. However, they will be expected to: Identify young people in need of mental health services. Consult with other school-based mental health professionals. Make referrals to outside community agency resources. Communicate mental health reports to school personnel and parents.

What Professional School Counselors Need To Know About Mental & Emotional Disorders (cont.)
With the parent’s permission, they may be asked to provide input from the school, including observations, behavioral checklists, and samples of schoolwork.

Multiaxial System of Diagnosis
The DSM-IV-TR uses a multiaxial approach to diagnosis to facilitate a comprehensive and systematic evaluation of a person. Axis I: Clinical Disorders (e.g., conduct disorders, eating disorders, anxiety disorders, mood disorders, etc.) Axis II: Mental Retardation and Personality Disorders Axis III: General Medical Conditions Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems (e.g., occupational, family, or educational stressors) Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning

Mental Disorders In Infants, Children, & Adolescents
1. Mental Retardation 2. Learning, Motor, and Communication Disorders 3. Pervasive Developmental Disorders 4. Attention-Deficit Disorders & Disruptive Behavior Disorders 5. Eating Disorders in Children & Adolescents 6. Tic Disorders 7. Elimination Disorders: Encopresis & Enuresis 8. Separation Anxiety Disorder 9. Selective Mutism 10. Reactive Attachment Disorder 11. Mood Disorders 12. Substance-Related Disorders 13. Psychotic Disorders 14. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 15. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 16. Generalized Anxiety Disorder 17. Adjustment Disorders

Mental Retardation - Diagnosis
Mental Retardation (MR) has an impact on cognitive, emotional, and social development. MR is diagnosed from results of individual intelligence tests, such as the WISC-IV (IQ<70) and the SBIS-5 (IQ<70). To be diagnosed as MR, onset must be prior to age 18 years, the student must possess sub-average intellectual functioning, and have impaired adaptive functioning in at least 2 of the following areas: Communication, social skills, self-care, home living, interpersonal skills, self-direction, leisure, functional academic skills, health, safety, or work. MR is usually diagnosed in infancy or early childhood. About 1-2% of the population is diagnosed as MR. Boys are 3 times more likely than girls to be diagnosed with MR.

Mental Retardation - Degrees
Borderline Intellectual Functioning- People with an IQ that is in the range and are not diagnosed with mental retardation. Four Degrees Of Mental Retardation Mild Retardation- The IQ score is in the range of to 70. Moderate Retardation- IQ score is in the range of to Severe Retardation- IQ score is in the range of to Profound Retardation- IQ score is below

Mental Retardation - Causes
Biological Causes 25-30% of people with mental retardation have biological causes. Down’s Syndrome is a genetic type of mild or moderate retardation. Neurological Causes Neurological causes may be associated with more than 200 physical disorders, such as: Cerebral Palsy, Epilepsy, and Sensory Disorders. Environmental Causes

Mental Retardation – Intervention Strategies
Early intervention is essential. Examples of interventions: Special education, home health care, language stimulation, and social skills training can have a positive impact. Family, group and individual counseling can be effective in promoting positive self-regard and improving social, academic, and occupational skills. Behavior modification

Mental Retardation - Prognosis
Adults with a mild level of retardation often live independently and maintain a job with minimal supervision. People with moderate retardation may be able to live independently in group homes. Those with severe and profound retardation will probably reside in public and private institutions.

Mental Retardation - Relevance To Professional School Counselors
Are involved in the identification of children with mild retardation. Help families understand and accept the diagnosis and make the transition to an appropriate school program. Provide social skills training. Educate other students about Mental Retardation to promote their understanding and tolerance.

Learning, Motor Skills, & Communication Disorders
Children diagnosed with these disorders function significantly below normal expectations in a specific area, based on their age, cognitive abilities and education, as well as when their level of functioning is interfering with daily achievement.

Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities affect approximately 10% of the population, but are diagnosed in about 5% of students in U.S. public schools. Common Learning Disorders include: Reading Disorder (dyslexia) Mathematics Disorder (dyscalculia) Disorder of Written Expression (dysgraphia) These disorders are characterized by significant difficulties in academic functioning in a specific area.

Reading Disorder Reading Disorder is diagnosed in approximately 4% of the school-age population. Approximately 60-80% are boys. Children with this disorder have difficulty decoding unknown words, memorizing sight-word vocabulary lists, and comprehending written passages.

Mathematics Disorder Dyscalculia is a Mathematics Disorder in which children have difficulty with problem-solving, calculations, or both.

Disorder of Written Expression
Dysgraphia is a disability of written expression. This disorder is rarely found in isolation. In other words, another learning disability is often also present. Children with this disorder have difficulty with handwriting, spelling, grammar and/or the creation of prose.

Communication Disorders
Five Communication Disorders are identified in the DSM-IV-TR: 1. Expressive Language Disorder 2. Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder * Children who possess characteristics of disorders 1 & 2 display language skills that are significantly below expectations based on nonverbal ability and interfere with academic progress. 3. Phonological Disorder * Failure to use developmentally expected speech sounds that are appropriate for the individual’s age and dialect.

Communication Disorders (Cont’d)
4. Stuttering * Speech fluency interferes with the child’s ability to communicate or make good academic progress. 5. Communication Disorder - Not Otherwise Specified (NOS) * NOS is the diagnosis for disorders that belong in the category but don’t fully meet the diagnostic criteria for any specific disorder.

Learning, Motor Skills, & Communication Disorders
Approximately 35-40% of boys with Learning Disabilities have at least one parent who had similar learning problems. Learning Disorders are associated with low socioeconomic status, poor self-esteem, depression, and perceptual deficiencies. Children with these disorders are often unhappy in school, have negative self-images and social difficulties, and show increased likelihood of dropping out of school. Depression, AD/HD and Disruptive Behavior Disorders will often coexist with learning disabilities.

Learning, Motor Skills, & Communication Disorders - Intervention Strategies
Primary interventions occur at school. Children who demonstrate a significant discrepancy between intelligence and achievement may be eligible to receive special education services. An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is developed. The IEP specifies areas of weakness, strategies for addressing deficit areas, behavioral goals, and criteria for determining whether goals were met. Motor or attention on-task behaviors are also included in the IEP. Interventions, counseling, individualized teaching strategies and accommodations, and social skills training are also aspects included in some IEP objectives.

Learning, Motor Skills, & Communication Disorders - Prognosis
Learning Disorders (LD) continue to have an impact throughout adolescence and adulthood. If left undiagnosed and untreated, LD can lead to extreme frustration, loss of self-esteem, inadequate education, underemployment, and more serious mental disorders

Learning, Motor Skills, & Communication Disorders - Relevance to Professional School Counselors
Serve on child study and special education committees tasked with screening and identifying children with LD. Are often the first to be aware of how learning problems are affecting the child’s performance in the classroom, home, and with peers. May be required by the IEP to provide individual or group counseling, help parents and children to understand and cope with the diagnosis, and implement accommodations. Act as a consultant or collaborator in dealing with coexisting issues, such as low self-esteem. Coordinate support groups for students with Communication Disorders.

Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD)
PDD is diagnosed in approximately 10 to 20 cases per 10,000. Males outnumber females by 2.5:1. Four PDDs are described in the DSM-IV-TR, in addition to PDD NOS: Autistic Disorder Rett’s Disorder Childhood Disintegrative Disorder Asperger’s Disorder Children with PDD are characterized by a flat affect, poor eye contact, language impairment, and minimal social speech. In addition, they do not seek social attention.

Autistic Disorder Present in 2 - 20 of every 10,000 people.
Causes significant deficits in socialization, communication, and behavior. Symptoms are evident by age three years. Mental retardation accompanies this diagnosis 75% of the time. Ability to communicate varies. Children with this disorder do not form close relationships with others and instead engage in repetitive interactions with inanimate objects.

Rett’s Disorder & Childhood Disintegrative Disorder
Both disorders are: Less prevalent than Autistic Disorder. Characterized by normal development in early childhood (5 months-4 years for Rett’s and 2-10 yrs. for Childhood Disintegrative Disorder) followed by a steady deterioration. Rett’s Disorder Only diagnosed in females. Results in severe or profound retardation. Childhood Disintegrative Disorder Results in significant regression in at least 2 of the following areas: Language, social skills, elimination, play and motor skills.

Asperger’s Disorder Characterized by impaired social skills and repetitive or stereotypical behaviors, not characterized by the delayed language development and impairment in communication skills. Boys are diagnosed with this disorder five times more frequently than girls.

**EARLY INTERVENTION IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR FOR A POSITIVE OUTCOME**
PDD & Prognosis Autistic Disorder - Some lead independent lives; however, 2/3 require care throughout their lives. Asperger’s Disorder- Have the best prognosis. Many succeed in becoming self-sufficient. Rett’s Disorder and Childhood Disintegrative Disorder- most likely these individuals will be placed in residential treatment facilities. **EARLY INTERVENTION IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR FOR A POSITIVE OUTCOME**

PDD & Intervention Strategies
Special education services may include: language and physical therapy, services of neurologists, medical specialists, and behavioral therapists. Smith (2001) suggested using Social Stories, a short story format to inform and advise the child about a situation. Therapeutic goals may include: development of social and communication skills, enhancing learning, and helping the family cope. Behavioral treatments have been found to be particularly effective in helping children with Autistic Disorders. Social skills and social communication training are beneficial for children with Autistic and Asperger’s Disorder.

PDD & Relevance To Professional School Counselors
Professional school counselors may help siblings cope, as well as help parents access supportive resources (e.g. behavioral training programs). Professional school counselors may need to provide educators with resources as students with PDD are included in regular education classes.

Attention-Deficit Disorders & Disruptive Behavior Disorders
These disorders have a high rate of comorbidity. Children with AD/HD or Conduct Disorder also often have Learning Disorders.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD)
AD/HD is found in as many as 50% of children referred for counseling. In 1995, public school systems spent more than 3 billion dollars for services for children with AD/HD. AD/HD is divided into three types: Predominately Hyperactive-Impulsive Type Predominately Inattentive Type Combined Type (both of the above simultaneously) To be diagnosed with AD/HD: Onset must be prior to age seven years Symptoms must occur in two or more settings Must interfere with social, academic, or occupational functioning. Symptoms need to be present for at least six months

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) (cont.)
Symptoms may include failure to give close attention to details, difficulty sustaining attention, poor follow-through on instructions, failure to finish work, difficulty organizing tasks, misplacement of things, distraction by extraneous stimuli, and forgetfulness. Diagnosis is made through medical, cognitive, and academic assessments, as well as through behavior rating scales and observations.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) - Prevalance
Prevalence rates range from 3-7% of children. AD/HD is diagnosed in boys 2-9 times more frequently than girls. AD/HD is diagnosed in 44% of children receiving special education services. Girls with AD/HD had lower ratings on hyperactivity, inattention, impulsivity and externalizing problems and greater intellectual impairment and internalizing problems than boys; however more research is needed to clarify gender differences. High rates of diagnosis draw particular attention to the ways in which children are assessed. Diagnostic assessments remain controversial.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) - Prognosis
The prognosis for treatment of AD/HD is good. Behavioral interventions have been found to reduce off-task and distractible behaviors. In addition, psychostimulant medications are used to help individuals with AD/HD stay on-task.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) Intervention Strategies
Behavioral strategies and the use of stimulant medications are the most commonly used intervention strategies. Behavioral strategies include developing token economy systems. Common medications include Methylphenidate (Ritalin) and Dextroamphetamine (Dexadrine). Other medications include Adderall, methylphenidate (Concerta) and Strattera. The goal of intervention includes staying on task, completing work, and following directions. Social skills training programs, group therapy, and skill development are other intervention strategies.

Disruptive Behavior Disorders
The DSM-IV-TR describes two additional Disruptive Behavior Disorders: Conduct Disorder Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) Prevalence rates for Conduct Disorder include 6-16% of males under the age of 18 years and 2-9% of females. Prevalence rates for ODD are 2-16%.

Disruptive Behavior Disorders - Diagnosis
Diagnosis requires the presence of repetitive and persistent violations of the basic rights of others or violations of major age-appropriate societal norms. Conduct Disorder can be diagnosed when the student displays: Aggression against people and animals Destruction of property Deceitfulness or theft Serious violations of rules

Disruptive Behavior Disorders - Conduct Disorder
Conduct Disorder is divided into childhood-onset and adolescent-onset types. Adolescent-onset type is diagnosed when no symptoms are present before the age of 10 years. Many children with ODD qualify for the Conduct Disorder (CD) diagnosis during adolescence and, by the age of 18 years, CD sometimes has evolved into Antisocial Personality Disorder.

Disruptive Behavior Disorders - ODD
ODD is characterized by a pattern of negativistic, hostile, and defiant behaviors lasting at least 6 months. Behavioral characteristics include losing one’s temper, arguing with adults, defying or refusing to comply with adults’ requests, deliberately annoying people, being angry and resentful, being easily annoyed by others, blaming others for one’s own negative behavior, and being vindictive. ODD is correlated with low socioeconomic status and growing up in an urban location. Symptoms usually first appear around the age of 8 years. ODD is more prevalent in childhood in boys than girls, but by puberty equal numbers are diagnosed.

Disruptive Behavior Disorders - Prognosis
Prognosis is best when there has been late onset of symptoms, early intervention, and long-term intervention. An important element of successful treatment is parents’ support and participation.

Disruptive Behavior Disorders – Intervention Strategies
Four types of intervention strategies are suggested: Individual counseling Family interventions School-based interventions Community interventions Residential or day treatment programs are recommended when the child poses a danger to self or others. School-based interventions may include early education, classroom guidance units, classroom instruction, home visits, and regular meetings with parents.

Disruptive Behavior Disorders - Relevance to Professional School Counselors
Of all the categories of mental disorders, professional school counselors will have the greatest need to be knowledgeable about AD/HD and Disruptive Behavior Disorders. School personnel and parents may look to the counselor for guidance. Frequently children are not diagnosed with Disruptive Behavior Disorders until they enter school; therefore, professional school counselors may need to work closely with parents to help them understand these disorders and make referrals.

Disruptive Behavior Disorders – Research and Early Prevention
Recent studies examining the relationship between low reading achievement and Conduct Disorder with perceived school culture, self-esteem, attachment to learning, and peer approval is encouraging the development of a range of school-based and family-focused prevention programs targeting young children. Two approaches to early prevention: Provide social skills, problem-solving, and anger management training to the entire school population through a developmental curriculum (e.g., Second Step: A Violence Prevention Curriculum) Identify high-risk students and provide a small group curriculum for them (e.g., Fast Track)

Eating Disorders In Children & Adolescents
There are two disorders that can interfere with a child’s early development: Pica Characterized by the ingestion of nonfood substances. Rumination Disorder Characterized by persistent regurgitation and re-chewing of food. Both Pica and Rumination Disorder are linked to children with Mental Retardation and Pervasive Developmental Disorder.

Other Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa Prevalent among adolescent girls. Rates of 0.5% - 2%. Person refuses to maintain a normal body weight. Body weight that is 85% or less than the normal weight for the person’s age and size. Other symptoms may include fear of becoming fat, a disturbed body image, and cessation of menstrual cycles. Two types have been identified: Restricting Type (associated with dieting, fasting, or excessive exercise), and Binge-Eating/Purging Type (associated with binge eating, purging, or both). 85% of those diagnosed meet the criteria while between the ages of 13 and 20 years. Physiological consequences include dry skin, edema, low blood pressure, metabolic changes, potassium loss, and cardiac damage that can result in death.

Other Eating Disorders
Bulimia Nervosa Individuals diagnosed with Bulimia Nervosa engage in similar behavior to those with Anorexia Nervosa, but do not meet the full criteria for that disorder, usually because their weight is more than 85% of normal. Involves an average of two episodes a week of binge eating and compensatory behavior such as vomiting, fasting, laxative use, or extreme exercise, for at least 3 months. Physiological reactions include dental cavities and enamel loss, electrolyte imbalance, cardiac and renal problems, and esophageal tears.

Eating Disorders - Prognosis
44% of people with Anorexia Nervosa recover completely through treatment, 28% are significantly improved, 24% are not helped or deteriorate, and 5% die. The prognosis for Bulimia Nervosa is somewhat better: Treatment that follows recommended guidelines can typically reduce binge-eating and purging by a rate of at least 75%. A positive prognosis is associated with good pre-morbid functioning, a positive family environment, the client’s acknowledgement of hunger, greater maturity and self-esteem, high educational level, early age of onset, less weight loss, shorter duration of the disease, less denial of the disorder, and absence of coexisting mental disorders.

Eating Disorders – Intervention Strategies
Medical assessment Multi-faceted therapy Behavior therapy to promote healthy eating and eliminate purging and other destructive behaviors. Cognitive therapy to help the individual gain an understanding of the disorder, improve self-esteem and gain a sense of control. Group therapy and family counseling to help deal with emotional difficulties.

Eating Disorders - Relevance to Professional School Counselors
Signs and symptoms of these disorders will be apparent in school. Prevention programs and early detection may be the best defense. Professional school counselors may become aware of students who are regularly eating little or no lunch, engaging in ritualized eating patterns, or purging. Working with classroom teachers, the school nurse, and parents, professional school counselors can help students and their families become aware of dangerous eating patterns and the long-term consequences of Eating Disorders. Professional school counselors can also support the efforts of mental health therapists and help parents find resources.

Tic Disorders The DSM-IV-TR identifies 4 Tic Disorders:
Tourette’s Disorder Chronic Tic Disorder Transient Tic Disorder Tic Disorder NOS A tic disorder is characterized by sudden, rapid repetitive motor movements or vocalizations [i.e. clearing one’s throat, barking, coprolalia (using obscene words), palilalia (repetition of one’s words or sounds), and echolalia (repetition of what is heard last)].

Tic Disorders (Cont’d)
These symptoms are typically worse under stress, less noticeable when the child is distracted, and diminish entirely during sleep. More common in boys and an elevated incidence in children with other disorders such as AD/HD, Learning Disorders, Pervasive Developmental Disorder, Anxiety Disorders, and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.

Tic Disorders - Tourette’s Disorder
Characterized by a combination of multiple motor tics and one or more vocal tics that have been present for at least one year. These tics commonly interfere with academic performance and social relationships. It is diagnosed in 4-5 children per 10,000 and tends to run in families.

Tic Disorders - Chronic Tic Disorder & Transient Tic Disorder
Chronic Tic Disorder - Diagnosed when one type of tic, motor or vocal, has been present for at least one year. Transient Tic Disorder - Symptoms include motor and/or vocal tics that have been present for at least four weeks, but less than a year.

Tic Disorders - Prognosis & Intervention Strategies
Habit-reversal techniques (behavioral interventions) showed a 90% reduction in tics as compared to medication that showed only a 50-60% reduction. Intervention Strategies Identification of any underlying stressors, cognitive-behavioral method for stress management, education of children and families about the disorder, advocacy with education professionals, and collaborative work with physicians if pharmacological interventions are necessary. Behavioral strategies (e.g. relaxation training). Social skills training. Pharmacological treatment for children who do not respond to behavioral interventions (e.g. Haloperidol).

Tic Disorders - Relevance To Professional School Counselors
Professional school counselors can provide sources of referral and information to parents and teachers during the diagnostic period. Suggestions concerning classroom modifications to reduce stress, rewards for behavioral control, and adjustment of academic expectations can be facilitated by the professional school counselor. Social skills training can be implemented to help children deal with peer relationship problems.

Elimination Disorders: Encopresis & Enuresis
Both are characterized by inadequate bowel or bladder control in children whose age and intellectual levels suggest they can be expected to have adequate control of these functions. These disorders cannot be associated with a medical condition. Encopresis Voluntary or involuntary passage of feces in inappropriate places. Diagnosis is not made in children younger than four years. Sometimes there is an association between Encopresis and ODD or Conduct Disorder. Sexual abuse and family pressure may also be associated with this disorder. Enuresis The involuntary or intentional inappropriate voiding of urine, occurring in children over the age of five years. The subtype, Nocturnal Only, is the most common type. Behavioral interventions are the most successful.

Elimination Disorders - Relevance To The Professional School Counselor
Parents will need information and education about how to deal with these disorders. Parents should be encouraged to rule out medical causes. The professional school counselor can also be available to help parents cope.

Separation Anxiety Disorder
Separation Anxiety Disorder is the only anxiety disorder diagnosed exclusively in childhood. It is characterized by excessive distress upon separation from primary attachment figures. For diagnosis, a child needs to have 3 or more symptoms present for at least 4 weeks and prior to 18 years of age, e.g.: Worry about caretakers’ safety. Reluctance or refusal to go to school or be separated from caregivers. Fear of being alone. Repeated nightmares involving separation themes. Somatic complaints. Adolescents exposed to domestic violence and living in abusive homes are at particular risk for developing SAD.

Separation Anxiety Disorder - Prognosis and Intervention Strategies
High rate of recovery with treatment. Intervention Strategies Treatment can best be determined when the underlying cause of the disorder is understood. This disorder is considered a sort of phobia and therefore behavioral strategies, such as systematic desensitization, are used. Family therapy may also be necessary.

Separation Anxiety Disorder- Relevance To The Professional School Counselor
Counselors can help parents distinguish between mild and transient symptoms associated with difficulty adjusting to school and true Separation Anxiety Disorder. Professional school counselors play an important role in helping to plan and implement systematic desensitization. They can also provide parents with encouragement and support to leave their children at school, and students with the support they need to stay in school.

Selective Mutism Characterized by a person consistently not speaking in some social contexts, while speaking in others. Family dysfunction is often implicated in this disorder. 97% of people diagnosed with Selective Mutism also have symptoms of Social Phobias. A child with this disorder is often lonely and depressed and the mother is often over-involved or enmeshed with the child.

Selective Mutism (cont.)
Prognosis Half the children treated are able to speak in public by age ten years. Prognosis for children over the age of 10 years who still exhibit symptoms is less optimistic. Older children are often teased by peers or inappropriately managed by teachers and therefore inadvertently encouraged to maintain the behaviors. Intervention Strategies Behavioral interventions are designed to teach social skills and increase communication. Play therapy can be used to help children overcome symptoms and provide a nonverbal means of communication. Family therapy is also helpful to address family roles.

Selective Mutism (cont.)
Relevance To Professional School Counselors Help parents and school personnel to decide whether a referral to an outside agency is necessary. Part of the treatment team and help provide a safe environment.

Reactive Attachment Disorder
Begins before the age of five years and is characterized by children manifesting severe disturbances in social relatedness. RAD typically occurs in 1 of 2 extremes: Indiscriminate and excessive attempts to receive comfort and affection from any available adult Extreme reluctance to initiate or accept comfort and affection, even from familiar adults and especially when distressed Attachments to the child’s primary caregivers have been disrupted. Neglect, abuse, or grossly inadequate parenting is thought to cause this disorder.

Reactive Attachment Disorder (Cont’d)
Some additional symptoms of RAD include low self-esteem, lack of self-control, antisocial attitudes and behaviors, aggression and violence, and a lack of ability to trust, show affection, or develop intimacy. Behaviors are generally self-destructive in nature.

Reactive Attachment Disorder (cont.)
Intervention Strategies Early intervention is key. Once the medical needs of the child are addressed, behavior programs to improve feeding, eating, and caregiving routines can be implemented. Relevance To Professional School Counselors Professional school counselors need to be aware of the criteria because a connection has been found between insecure attachment and both subsequent behavior and impulse control problems and poor peer relationships in young children. This disorder may be associated with eating problems, developmental delays, and abuse, neglect, and other parent-child problems.

Mood Disorders Characteristics include irritability and somatic complaints. An estimated 70% of children and adolescents with serious Mood Disorders are either undiagnosed or inadequately treated. Major Depressive Disorder is diagnosed in 0.4% to 2.5% of children and 0.4% to 8.3% of adolescents. Dysthymic Disorder, a milder form of depression is diagnosed in 0.6% to 1.7% of children and 1.6% to 8% of adolescents. Bipolar Disorder, characterized by episodes of depression and episodes of mania or hypomania is rare in children.

Mood Disorders (cont.) Prognosis
Psychotherapy and psychoeducational interventions have been shown to be effective. Intervention Strategies Cognitive and behavioral interventions are emphasized. Psychoeducational programs focus on improving social skills and encouraging rewarding activities. The effectiveness of medications has not yet been established.

Mood Disorders (cont.) Relevance to the Professional School Counselor
Understanding the diagnostic criteria for Mood Disorders is important so professional school counselors can distinguish situational sadness from a mental disorder. The professional school counselor will consult with parents, teachers and other mental health professionals when working with a child who appears depressed.

Substance-Related Disorders
Children who live with parents with Substance-Related Disorders are at a particularly high risk of developing these disorders themselves. Substance Use Disorders Characterized by maladaptive patterns of using drugs and alcohol. Two types of Substance Use Disorders Substance Abuse - Characterized by maladaptive use of substances, leading to significant impairment or distress. Substance Dependence -Often includes distress, impairment, development of tolerance, and symptoms of withdrawal.

Substance-Related Disorders (Cont’d)
Substance-Induced Disorders Substance-Induced Disorders describe symptoms such as intoxication, mood changes, and sleep-related problems that stem directly from maladaptive patterns of using drugs or alcohol. Prognosis Many factors are related to a good prognosis, such as a stable family situation, early intervention, lack of antisocial behavior, and no family history of alcohol abuse.

Substance-Related Disorders (cont.)
Ten risk factors that predict or precipitate Substance-related Disorders (Lambie & Rokutani, 2002) Poor parent-child relationships Mental disorders (especially depression) A tendency to seek novel experiences or take risks Family members or peers who use substances Low academic motivation Absence of religion/religiosity Early cigarette use Low self-esteem Being raised in a single-parent or blended family Engaging in health-compromising behaviors

Intervention Strategies Prevention through substance abuse education, recognition of risk factors, and early detection and treatment are important strategies. Accurate screening is also paramount for intervention. Treatment may include detoxification, contracting, behavior therapy, self-help groups, family therapy, change in a person’s social context, and nutritional and recreational counseling. Specific interventions include family intervention, remedial education, career counseling, and community outreach. Treatment programs for youth must target the specific needs of adolescents, including level of cognitive development, family situation, and educational needs.

Relevance To The Professional School Counselor The most dramatic increase in exposure and drug use is at 12 to 13 years of age. As a result proactive substance use education programs are necessary. Professional school counselors have four functions when working with students with possible substance abuse issues: Identify the possible warning signs of student substance abuse. Work with the youth to establish a therapeutic relationship. Support the family system to promote change. Be a resource and liaison between the student, the family, the school, and community agencies and treatment programs.

Psychotic Disorders Psychotic Disorders are rarely diagnosed in children. For example, approximately 1 child in 10,000 develops Schizophrenia. Some symptoms of Psychotic Disorder are hallucinations, loose associations, and illogical thinking. The most common symptoms of Schizophrenia are auditory hallucinations and delusions, and illogical conversation and thought patterns.

Psychotic Disorders (cont.)
Prognosis Prognosis is positive when Psychotic Disorders are treated with a combination of family therapy and medication. Intervention Strategies Treatment for children and adolescents with Psychotic Disorders should include family therapy, medication, counseling and special education. Social skills training should be included as part of treatment. Relevance to the Professional School Counselor It is unlikely that professional school counselors will encounter children with this disorder. Counselors may be involved in the implementation and delivery of special education services as part of an IEP, which may include social and emotional goals.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
One in 200 children and adolescents meets the criteria for OCD. Children present obsessions about germs or disease and exhibit concomitant compensatory rituals of washing or checking. Other compulsions include touching, counting, hoarding and repeating. The average age of onset is 10.2 years.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (cont.)
Intervention Strategies Cognitive-behavioral interventions. The primary intervention is exposure to obsessions. Medication is also often used as part of the treatment plan. Relevance to Professional School Counselors Professional school counselors can provide information about the disorder and help parents determine whether a referral is warranted. When a diagnosis is made, professional school counselors can help structure the school modifications and interventions.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Triggered by exposure to an extreme threat of death or serious injury, such as sexual abuse or a car accident. Criteria for diagnosis include: Great fear and helplessness in response to the event. Persistent re-experiencing of the event. Loss of general responsiveness. Symptoms of arousal and anxiety such as sleep disturbances, anger or irritability. Children may also experience nightmares. Symptoms can be expressed both behaviorally (i.e., regressions, anxious attachment) or physiologically (i.e., headaches, stomachaches).

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (cont.)
Prognosis Prognosis is good with treatment. Children who perceive that they have strong social support are able to talk about the traumatic event and feelings associated with the event, and who have safe schools and cohesive family environments have a better chance at decreasing their PTSD symptoms more quickly.

Intervention Strategies Treatment should begin as soon as possible after the symptoms emerge. Preventive treatment, even before symptoms emerge, is recommended. Group intervention through critical incident stress debriefing. The goal of treatment is to help the person access the trauma, express feelings, increase coping and control over memories, reduce cognitive distortions and self-blame, and restore self-concept and previous level of functioning. Group therapy with people who have had similar traumatic experiences is also beneficial.

Therapeutic interventions should be based within the school setting only when: Comprehensive assessment has been completed. It is determined that school-based support is the appropriate, least restrictive level intervention. Parents have been informed of all treatment options. The child is experiencing adequate adjustment and academic success with intervention. Consultation, supervision, and referral are readily utilized by the professional school counselor.

Relevance to the Professional School Counselor Provide support to students, staff, and parents in the event of a trauma. Provide group and individual counseling that offer accurate information, give people a place to ask questions and talk about the trauma, and screen for symptoms of PTSD. Professional school counselors need to be aware of the differences between unhealthy and healthy responses to traumatic events, and be able to provide resources to students and families.

Professional school counselors should have a solid working knowledge of etiological and diagnostic implications of PTSD, the therapeutic options, and ways to facilitate school reintegration of a child who has suffered a traumatic event.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Characterized by feelings of worry or anxiety about many aspects of the person’s life and is reflected in related physical symptoms such as shortness of breath and muscle tension that are difficult to control. Symptoms must persist for at least 6 months and have a significant impact on the person’s functioning. Prognosis People who receive cognitive-behavioral therapy show significant improvement, although few will be free of all symptoms.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (Con’td)
Intervention Strategies Strategies include teaching people to cope with anxiety using procedures such as relaxation and distraction, as well as rational thinking. Stress management techniques, such as guided imagery, yoga, diaphragmatic breathing, meditation, exercise, and systematic desensitization are also used. Relevance to the Professional School Counselor Suggest stress management strategies. Help parents understand the disorder. Offer guidance units and small group counseling sessions to students coping with severe anxiety, as well as workshops to help their parents.

Adjustment Disorders Characterized by a relatively mild maladaptive response to a stressor which occurs within three months of the stressor. Stressors may include changing schools, parental separation, or illness in the family. Maladaptive responses may include anxiety, depression or behavioral changes. Prognosis Prognosis is good if the disorder stands alone.

Adjustment Disorders (Cont’d)
Intervention Strategies Most improve spontaneously without treatment. Counseling can facilitate recovery. Teaching coping skills and adaptive strategies to help people avert future crises and minimize poor choices and self-destructive behaviors. A crisis-intervention model is most effective. Relevance to the Professional School Counselor Provide students with supportive strategies required to cope with the symptoms. Provide crisis-intervention. Help parents understand the effect the stressor is having on their children.

Transforming the School Counseling Profession

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