1. 11
Personality Theory and Assessment

2. Learning Objectives
11.1 What concepts did Freud propose to explain personality? 11.2 What is the role of the psychosexual stages in Freud's theory? 11.3 How do modern psychologists evaluate Freud's ideas? 11.4 How do the views of the neo-Freudians differ from those of Freud? 11.5 How do humanistic theorists explain personality? 2

3. Learning Objectives
11.6 What have psychologists learned about self-esteem? 11.7 What ideas did the early trait theorists propose? 11.8 How does the five-factor model describe personality? 11.9 What does research say about the effects of heredity and environment on personality traits? How do personality traits vary across cultures? 3

4. Learning Objectives
11.11 How do Mischel and Bandura address the situation-trait debate? What do self-efficacy and locus of control contribute to personality? How do psychologists use observations, interviews, and rating scales? What do the MMPI-2, the CPI, and the MBTI reveal about personality? How do projective tests provide insight into personality? 4

5. Personality Theories Personality
Characteristic patterns of behaving, thinking, and feeling
Psychoanalytic Theories
Unconscious processes
Humanistic Theories
Self-actualization, self-esteem
Trait Theories
Five-factor model (Big Five)
Social-Cognitive Theories
Reciprocal determinism

6. Psychoanalytic Theories: Freud's Theory of Personality
LO 11.1
Personality
characteristic patterns of behaving, thinking, and feeling
Psychoanalysis
theory and therapy that focuses on unconscious processes
11.1 What concepts did Freud
propose to explain personality?

7. Psychoanalytic Theories: Freud's Theory of Personality
LO 11.1
Freud proposed 3 levels of consciousness.
Conscious
what we are aware of at any given moment
thoughts, feelings, sensations, or memories
11.1 What concepts did Freud
propose to explain personality?

8. Psychoanalytic Theories: Freud's Theory of Personality
LO 11.1
Three levels of consciousness.
Conscious
what we are aware of at any moment
thoughts, feelings, sensations, memories
Preconscious
memories we are not aware of but can easily bring to mind
Unconscious
inaccessible memories, instincts, wishes, desires
11.1 What concepts did Freud
propose to explain personality?

9. FIGURE Freud’s Conception of Personality According to Freud, personality, which may be conceptualized as a giant iceberg, is composed of three structures: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id, completely unconscious, is wholly submerged, floating beneath the surface. The ego is largely conscious and visible, but partly unconscious. The superego also operates at both the conscious and unconscious levels.

10. Freud's Theory of Personality: The Id, Ego, and Superego
LO 11.1 Id
contains life and death instincts
operates according to the pleasure principle
Ego
logical, rational part of personality
operates according to the reality principle
11.1 What concepts did Freud
propose to explain personality?

11. Freud's Theory of Personality: The Id, Ego, and Superego
LO 11.1
Superego
moral system of the personality
consists of conscience and ego ideal
11.1 What concepts did Freud
propose to explain personality?

12. Freud's Theory of Personality: Defense Mechanisms
LO 11.1
Used by ego to:
Maintain self-esteem
Defend against anxiety created by conflict between the id and superego
The id's demands for pleasure often conflict with the superego's desires for moral perfection.
All individuals use defense mechanisms.
11.1 What concepts did Freud
propose to explain personality?

13. Freud's Theory of Personality: Defense Mechanisms
LO 11.1
Overuse can lead to psychological problems.
Repression is the most commonly used mechanism.
11.1 What concepts did Freud
propose to explain personality?

14. TABLE 11.1 Freud’s Defense Mechanisms

15. Freud's Theory of Personality: The Psychosexual Stages of Development
The sex instinct is an important factor influencing personality.
Develops through a series of stages
Each stage involves the erogenous zone and conflict.
if the conflict is not resolved:
Child develops a fixation.
A portion of the libido (psychic energy) remains invested at that stage.
11.2 What is the role of the
psychosexual stages in
Freud's theory?

16. Freud's Theory of Personality: The Psychosexual Stages of Development
Develops through a series of stages
central theme of phallic stage is controversial
love of opposite-sex parent
Oedipus complex: boys
Electra complex: girls
11.2 What is the role of the
psychosexual stages in
Freud's theory?

17. Freud's Theory of Personality: The Psychosexual Stages of Development
Oral Stage
Takes place from birth to 1 year of age
conflict: weaning
Fixation can lead to dependency and passivity or sarcasm and hostility.
11.2 What is the role of the
psychosexual stages in
Freud's theory?

18. Freud's Theory of Personality: The Psychosexual Stages of Development
Anal Stage
Takes place between 1 to 3 years of age
conflict: toilet training
Fixation can lead to excessive cleanliness and stinginess or messiness and rebelliousness.
11.2 What is the role of the
psychosexual stages in
Freud's theory?

19. Freud's Theory of Personality: The Psychosexual Stages of Development
Phallic Stage
Takes place between 3 to 5 or 6 years of age
conflict: Oedipus complex
Fixation can lead to flirtatiousness and promiscuity or excessive pride and chastity.
11.2 What is the role of the
psychosexual stages in
Freud's theory?

20. Freud's Theory of Personality: The Psychosexual Stages of Development
Latency Stage
Lasts from the age of 5 or 6 years to puberty
period of sexual calm
Genital Stage
puberty and beyond
revival of sexual interests
11.2 What is the role of the
psychosexual stages in
Freud's theory?

21. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development21

22. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development (continued)22

23. Evaluating Freud's Contribution
LO 11.3
Contributions
recognized importance of childhood experiences in shaping personality
identified role of defense mechanisms
called attention to the unconscious
11.3 How do modern
psychologists evaluate Freud's
ideas?

24. Evaluating Freud's Contribution
LO 11.3
Critics Argue
People do not typically repress painful memories.
Dreams do not have symbolic meaning.
Freud's ideas are difficult to test scientifically.
11.3 How do modern
psychologists evaluate Freud's
ideas?

25. FIGURE Jung’s Conception of Personality Like Freud, Jung saw three components in personality. The ego and the personal unconscious are unique to each individual. The collective unconscious accounts for the similarity of myths and beliefs in diverse cultures.

26. The Neo-Freudians Carl Jung (1875–1961)
LO 11.4
Carl Jung (1875–1961)
Sexual instinct is not the main factor in personality.
Felt that personality was not almost completely formed in early childhood.
archetypes
inherited tendencies to respond to universal human situations
11.4 How do the views of the
neo-Freudians differ from those
of Freud?

27. The Neo-Freudians Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
LO 11.4
Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
predominant force of personality is not sexual in nature
emphasized unity of personality
11.4 How do the views of the
neo-Freudians differ from those
of Freud?

28. The Neo-Freudians Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
LO 11.4
Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
The drive to overcome feelings of inferiority motivates most human behavior.
When feelings of inferiority prevent personal development, they constitute an inferiority complex.
Theory is referred to as individual psychology.
11.4 How do the views of the
neo-Freudians differ from those
of Freud?

29. The Neo-Freudians Karen Horney (1885–1952)
LO 11.4
Karen Horney (1885–1952)
Work centered on 2 main themes.
The neurotic personality
Feminine psychology
rejected Freud's psychosexual stages, the Oedipus complex, and penis envy
Women's difficulties arise from the failure to live up to idealized versions of themselves.
11.4 How do the views of the
neo-Freudians differ from those
of Freud?

30. The Neo-Freudians Karen Horney (1885–1952)
LO 11.4
Karen Horney (1885–1952)
For their own psychological health, women and men must overcome irrational beliefs about the need for perfection.
Her influence can be seen in modern cognitive-behavioral therapy.
11.4 How do the views of the
neo-Freudians differ from those
of Freud?

31. Humanistic Theories Humanistic Psychology
People have a natural tendency toward growth and realization of their fullest potential.
Humanistic theories are more optimistic about human nature than Freud's.
Humanistic theories are difficult to test scientifically.
11.5 How do humanistic
theorists explain personality?

32. Humanistic Theories Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
proposed a hierarchy of needs that motivates behavior
The highest need is self-actualization.
self-actualizers
Accurately perceive reality and quickly spot dishonesty
Tend not to depend on external authority
Internally motivated
Have peak experiences
11.5 How do humanistic
theorists explain personality?

33. Humanistic Theories: Two Humanistic Theories
LO 11.5
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
self-actualizers
Are internally driven, autonomous, and independent
Frequently have peak experiences
experiences of deep meaning, insight, and harmony within themselves and with the universe
11.5 How do humanistic
theorists explain personality?

34. Humanistic Theories: Two Humanistic Theories
LO 11.5
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
conditions of worth
conditions on which positive regard depends
Conditions of worth force us to live according to someone else's values.
In efforts to gain positive regard, we deny the true self.
11.5 How do humanistic
theorists explain personality?

35. Humanistic Theories: Two Humanistic Theories
LO 11.5
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
person-centered therapy
The goal is to enable people to live by their own values.
The therapist gives client unconditional positive regard.
unqualified caring and nonjudgmental acceptance
brings the person back in tune with self
11.5 How do humanistic
theorists explain personality?

36. Humanistic Theory: Self-Esteem
LO 11.6
How does self-esteem develop?
Variations in self-esteem can arise from comparisons of actual to desired traits.
Self-esteem is fairly stable from childhood through late adulthood.
By age 7, most children have global self-esteem.
Judgments come from both actual experiences and information provided by others.
11.6 What have psychologists
learned about self-esteem?

37. Humanistic Theory: Self-Esteem
LO 11.6
To develop high self-esteem, children need to:
Experience success in domains they view as important
Be encouraged by parents, teachers, and peers to value themselves
11.6 What have psychologists
learned about self-esteem?

38. Trait Theories Attempt to explain differences among people Trait
LO 11.7
Attempt to explain differences among people
Trait
personal characteristic that is stable across situations
used to describe or explain personality
11.7 What ideas did the early
trait theorists propose?

39. Early Trait Theories Allport (1936) proposed 2 kinds of traits
LO 11.7
Allport (1936)
proposed 2 kinds of traits
cardinal traits
so pervasive that almost every act can be traced to their influence
central traits
traits which we would "mention in writing a careful letter of recommendation"
11.7 What ideas did the early
trait theorists propose?

40. Early Trait Theories Cattell (1950) surface traits source traits
LO 11.7
Cattell (1950)
surface traits
the observable qualities of personality
source traits
underlie surface traits
cause certain surface traits to cluster together
Cattell identified 23 source traits.
11.7 What ideas did the early
trait theorists propose?

41. FIGURE 11.3 The 16PF Personality Profile The solid line represents the 16PF profile for a man named “Eric” (Cattell, Cattell & Cattell, 2003). The broken line is the average 16PF profile for business executives. Source: Cattell, R., & Schuerger, J. (2003). Essentials of 16PF assessment. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

42. Early Trait Theorists Eysenck (1916–1997)
LO 11.7
Eysenck (1916–1997)
proposed 3 personality factors
psychoticism
an individual's link to reality
extraversion
a dimension ranging from outgoing to shy
neuroticism
emotional stability, ranging from stable to anxious and irritable
11.7 What ideas did the early
trait theorists propose?

43. Early Trait Theorists Eysenck (1916–1997)
LO 11.7
Eysenck (1916–1997)
Factors are rooted in neurological functioning.
The idea has been supported by modern brain-imaging studies.
11.7 What ideas did the early
trait theorists propose?

44. FIGURE Trait Structure of Extraversion in Eyesenck’s Three-Factor Model of Personality Eysenck’s research focused on three major traits. A trait such as extraversion encompasses several other traits, as illustrated here. Based on Eysenck’s research focused on three major traits. 44

45. Trait Theories: The Five-Factor Model
LO 11.8
Attempts to explain personality using 5 broad dimensions
This model has become most closely associated with the research of Robert McCrae and Paul Costa.
The model varies from the Big Five model of Goldberg.
11.8 How does the five-factor
model describe personality?

46. The Five-Factor Model (Big Five)
LO 11.8
Each of the five factors is composed of a constellation of personality traits.
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Acronym OCEAN
11.8 How does the five-factor
model describe personality?

47. Trait Theories: The Five-Factor Model
LO 11.8
Openness
open to new experiences, curious, and broadminded versus having narrow interests and preferring the familiar
Conscientiousness
reliable, orderly, and industrious versus undependable and lazy
11.8 How does the five-factor
model describe personality?

48. Trait Theories: The Five-Factor Model
LO 11.8
Extraversion
outgoing, prefer to be around other people versus shy, prefer to be alone
Agreeableness
easygoing and friendly versus unfriendly and cold
Neuroticism
pessimistic and irritable versus optimistic, take things in stride
11.8 How does the five-factor
model describe personality?

49. Nature Nurture and Personality Traits
LO 11.9
Five-Factor Theory of Personality
McCrae and Costa (2003)
behavioral genetic theory
asserts that heredity is largely responsible for individual differences
Rushton and colleagues (1986)
Nurturance, empathy, and assertiveness are influenced by heredity.
11.9 What does research say
about the effects of heredity and
environment on personality traits?

50. Nature, Nurture, and Personality Traits
LO 11.9
The heritability of aggressiveness may be as high as .50 Carey (1997).
Genes constrain the ways in which environments affect personality traits (Kagan, 2003).
11.9 What does research say
about the effects of heredity and
environment on personality traits?

51. FIGURE Estimated Influence of Heredity and Environment on the Big Five Personality Dimensions The Minnesota study of twins reared apart yielded an average heritability estimate of .41 (41%) for the Big Five personality factors; the Loehlin twin studies, a heritability estimate of .42 (42%). Both studies found the influence of the shared environment to be only about .07 (7%). The remaining percentage represents a combination of nonshared environmental influences and measurement error. Source: Bouchard, T. (1994). Genes, environment, and personality. Science, 264, 1700–1701. Reprinted by permission of AAAS.

52. Personality and Culture
LO 11.10
Culture influences personality.
may not be captured in the 5-factor model
Cultures differ in individualism/collectivism.
individualist cultures
Emphasis is placed on independence and individual achievement.
11.10 How do personality traits
vary across cultures?

53. Personality and Culture
LO 11.10
Cultures differ in individualism/collectivism.
collectivist cultures
emphasis on social connectedness
define the self in terms of group membership
11.10 How do personality traits
vary across cultures?

54. Personality and Culture
LO 11.10
Psychologists warn against overemphasizing cultural differences in personality.
The goal for all individuals should be to enhance self-esteem.
A sense of personal control over one's life predicts well-being in all cultures.
11.10 How do personality traits
vary across cultures?

55. Social Cognitive Theory: The Situation-Trait Debate
LO 11.11
Social Cognitive Theory
Personality is defined as a collection of learned behaviors acquired through social interactions.
The Situation-Trait Debate: Walter Mischel (1968)
stresses the importance of factors within the situation and person in accounting for behavior
11.11 How do Mischel and
Bandura address the situation–
trait debate?

56. Social Cognitive Theory: The Situation-Trait Debate
LO 11.11
The Situation-Trait Debate: Walter Mischel (1968)
views trait as conditional probability
A particular action will occur in response to a particular situation.
Situations can modify personality traits.
example: lack of social support can increase neuroticism
Evidence suggests that traits are stable over time and across situations.
11.11 How do Mischel and
Bandura address the situation–
trait debate?

57. FIGURE Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism Bandura takes a social-cognitive view of personality. He suggests that three components—the external environment, individual behaviors, and cognitive factors, such as beliefs, expectancies, and personal dispositions—are all influenced by each other and play reciprocal roles in determining personality.

58. Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism Model
LO 11.11
Internal, environmental, and behavioral variables interact to influence personality.
Self-Efficacy
a person's perception of his or her ability to perform competently whatever is attempted
11.11 How do Mischel and
Bandura address the situation–
trait debate?

59. Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control
Bandura (1997)
the perception people have of their ability to perform competently whatever they attempt
high self-efficacy
persist in efforts, belief in success
low self-efficacy
expect failure, avoid challenges
11.12 What do self-efficacy and
locus of control contribute to
personality?

60. Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control
Rotter (1966, 1990)
internal locus of control
see selves as primarily in control of their behavior and its consequences
external locus of control
perceive events as in the hands of fate, luck, or chance
11.12 What do self-efficacy and
locus of control contribute to
personality?

61. Theories of Personality61

62. Personality Assessment: Observation Interviews and Rating Scales
LO 11.13
Observation
used in hospitals, clinics, schools, and workplaces
behavioral assessment
Psychologists count and record the frequency of particular behaviors.
often used in behavior modification programs in treatment
time-consuming; behavior may be misinterpreted
11.13 How do psychologists
use observations, interviews,
and rating scales?

63. Personality Assessment: Observation, Interviews, and Rating Scales
LO 11.13
Interviews
used to help in diagnosis and treatment
structured interview
The content of the questions and the manner in which they are asked are carefully planned ahead of time.
Comparisons can be made between different subjects.
11.13 How do psychologists
use observations, interviews,
and rating scales?

64. Personality Assessment: Observation, Interviews, and Rating Scales
LO 11.13
Rating Scales
provide standardized format, focus on relevant traits
11.13 How do psychologists
use observations, interviews,
and rating scales?

65. Personality Assessment: Personality Inventories
LO 11.14
Inventory
paper and pencil test with questions about a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
scored according to a standard procedure
used to measure several dimensions of personality
11.14 What do the MMPI-2,
the CPI, and the MBTI reveal
about personality?

66. Personality Assessment: Personality Inventories
LO 11.14
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
now revised as MMPI-2
used to screen for and diagnose psychiatric problems and disorders
the most extensively researched and widely used personality test
11.14 What do the MMPI-2,
the CPI, and the MBTI reveal
about personality?

67. Personality Inventories: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
LO 11.14
Consists of 10 clinical scales and 3 validity scales
Validity Scales
discerns those who are attempting to look healthier than they are and those attempting to appear disturbed
11.14 What do the MMPI-2,
the CPI, and the MBTI reveal
about personality?

68. Personality Inventories: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
LO 11.14
psychologist-evaluated clinical scales in light of validity scales
more than 115 translations of the MMPI are in use
11.14 What do the MMPI-2,
the CPI, and the MBTI reveal
about personality?

69. TABLE 11.2 The Clinical Scales of the MMPI-2

70. California Personality Inventory (CPI)
Personality Inventories: California Personality Inventory (CPI) and Myers-Briggs
LO 11.14
California Personality Inventory (CPI)
developed to assess personality in normal individuals
does not include any questions designed to reveal psychiatric illness
useful in predicting school achievement, leadership, and executive success
11.14 What do the MMPI-2,
the CPI, and the MBTI reveal
about personality?

71. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Personality Inventories: California Personality Inventory (CPI) and Myers-Briggs
LO 11.14
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
based on Jung's theory of personality
measures normal individual differences on 4 personality dimensions
popular in business and educational settings
11.14 What do the MMPI-2,
the CPI, and the MBTI reveal
about personality?

72. Personality Inventories: Projective Tests
LO 11.15
Projective Tests
consist of inkblots, drawings of ambiguous human situations, or incomplete sentences
no correct or incorrect responses
11.15 How do projective tests
provide insight into personality?

73. Personality Inventories: Projective Tests
LO 11.15
Projective Tests
inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or conflicts are projected onto the test materials
include Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test
11.15 How do projective tests
provide insight into personality?

74. Projective Tests: Rorschach Inkblot Method
The test taker is asked to describe 10 inkblots.
Responses can be used to diagnose disorders.
11.15 How do projective tests
provide insight into personality?

75. Projective Tests: Rorschach Inkblot Method
Critics argue that results are too dependent on the judgment of the examiner.
Exner (1993) developed the comprehensive system for scoring.
provides normative data for comparison of responses
11.15 How do projective tests
provide insight into personality?

76. Figure 11.7 An Inkblot Similar to One Used for the Rorschach Inkblot Method

77. Projective Tests: Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
LO 11.15
Developed by Henry Murray (1935)
Consists of 1 blank card and 19 cards showing vague or ambiguous black-and-white drawings of human figures
The test taker describes the drawings.
The descriptions are thought to reveal inner feelings, conflicts, and motives.
11.15 How do projective tests
provide insight into personality?

78. Projective Tests: Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
LO 11.15
Critics argue that:
The test relies too heavily on the interpretation of the examiner.
Responses may reflect temporary states and may not indicate more permanent aspects of personality.
11.15 How do projective tests
provide insight into personality?

79. Three Approaches to Personality Assessment79