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2.  Psychoanalytic Theories  Humanistic Theories  Trait Theories  Social-Cognitive Theories  Personality Assessment Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

3.  Personality characteristic patterns of behaving, thinking, and feeling  Psychoanalysis theory and therapy that focuses on unconscious processes  Freud proposed 3 levels of consciousness. Conscious  what we are aware of at any given moment  thoughts, feelings, sensations, or memories Preconscious  memories we are not aware of but can easily bring to mind Unconscious  repressed memories, instincts, wishes, desires  have never been conscious Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

4.  Id contains life and death instincts operates according to the pleasure principle  Ego logical, rational part of personality operates according to the reality principle  Superego moral system of the personality consists of conscience and ego ideal Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

5.  Used by ego to: Maintain self-esteem Defend against anxiety created by conflict between the id and superego  The id’s demands for pleasure often conflict with the superego’s desires for moral perfection.  All individuals use defense mechanisms.  Overuse can lead to psychological problems.  Repression is the most commonly used mechanism. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

7.  The sex instinct is an important factor influencing personality.  Develops through a series of stages Each stage involves the erogenous zone and conflict. if the conflict is not resolved:  Child develops a fixation.  A portion of the libido (psychic energy) remains invested at that stage. central theme of phallic stage is controversial  love of opposite-sex parent  Oedipus complex: boys  Electra complex: girls Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

8.  Oral Stage Takes place from birth to 1 year of age conflict: weaning Fixation can lead to dependency and passivity or sarcasm and hostility.  Anal Stage Takes place between 1 to 3 years of age conflict: toilet training Fixation can lead to excessive cleanliness and stinginess or messiness and rebelliousness. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

9.  Phallic Stage Takes place between 3 to 5 or 6 years of age conflict: Oedipus complex Fixation can lead to flirtatiousness and promiscuity or excessive pride and chastity.  Latency Stage Lasts from the age of 5 or 6 years to puberty period of sexual calm  Genital Stage puberty and beyond revival of sexual interests Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

10.  Contributions recognized importance of childhood experiences in shaping personality identified role of defense mechanisms called attention to the unconscious  Critics Argue People do not typically repress painful memories. Dreams do not have symbolic meaning. Freud’s ideas are difficult to test scientifically. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

11.  Carl Jung (1875–1961)  Sexual instinct is not the main factor in personality.  Felt that personality was not almost completely formed in early childhood.  archetypes  inherited tendencies to respond to universal human situations Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

12.  Alfred Adler (1870–1937) predominant force of personality is not sexual in nature emphasized unity of personality The drive to overcome feelings of inferiority motivates most human behavior.  When feelings of inferiority prevent personal development, they constitute an inferiority complex. Theory is referred to as individual psychology. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

13.  Karen Horney (1885–1952) Work centered on 2 main themes.  The neurotic personality  Feminine psychology rejected Freud’s psychosexual stages, the Oedipus complex, and penis envy Women’s difficulties arise from the failure to live up to idealized versions of themselves. For their own psychological health, women and men must overcome irrational beliefs about the need for perfection. Her influence can be seen in modern cognitive- behavioral therapy. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

14.  Humanistic Psychology People have a natural tendency toward growth and realization of their fullest potential. Humanistic theories are more optimistic about human nature than Freud’s. Humanistic theories are difficult to test scientifically. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

15.  Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) proposed a hierarchy of needs that motivates behavior The highest need is self-actualization. self-actualizers  Accurately perceive reality and quickly spot dishonesty  Tend not to depend on external authority  Are internally driven, autonomous, and independent  Frequently have peak experiences  experiences of deep meaning, insight, and harmony within themselves and with the universe Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

16.  Carl Rogers (1902–1987) conditions of worth  conditions on which positive regard depends  Conditions of worth force us to live according to someone else’s values. In efforts to gain positive regard, we deny the true self. person-centered therapy  The goal is to enable people to live by their own values.  The therapist gives client unconditional positive regard.  unqualified caring and nonjudgmental acceptance  brings the person back in tune with self Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

17.  How does self-esteem develop? Variations in self-esteem can arise from comparisons of actual to desired traits. Self-esteem is fairly stable from childhood through late adulthood. By age 7, most children have global self-esteem.  Judgments come from both actual experiences and information provided by others.  To develop high self-esteem, children need to: Experience success in domains they view as important Be encouraged by parents, teachers, and peers to value themselves Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

18.  Attempt to explain differences among people  Trait personal characteristic that is stable across situations used to describe or explain personality Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

19.  Allport (1936) proposed 2 kinds of traits  cardinal traits  so pervasive that almost every act can be traced to their influence  central traits  traits which we would “mention in writing a careful letter of recommendation”  Cattell (1950) surface traits  the observable qualities of personality source traits  underlie surface traits  cause certain surface traits to cluster together  Cattell identified 23 source traits. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

21.  Eysenck (1916–1997) proposed 3 personality factors  psychoticism  an individual’s link to reality  extraversion  a dimension ranging from outgoing to shy  neuroticism  emotional stability, ranging from stable to anxious and irritable Factors are rooted in neurological functioning. The idea has been supported by modern brain-imaging studies. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

22.  Attempts to explain personality using 5 broad dimensions  This model has become most closely associated with the research of Robert McCrae and Paul Costa.  The model varies from the Big Five model of Goldberg.  Each factor is composed of a constellation of personality traits. Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

23.  Openness open to new experiences, curious, and broadminded versus having narrow interests and preferring the familiar  Conscientiousness reliable, orderly, and industrious versus undependable and lazy  Extraversion outgoing, prefer to be around other people versus shy, prefer to be alone  Agreeableness easygoing and friendly versus unfriendly and cold  Neuroticism pessimistic and irritable versus optimistic, take things in stride Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

24.  Five-Factor Theory of Personality McCrae and Costa (2003) behavioral genetic theory  asserts that heredity is largely responsible for individual differences  Rushton and colleagues (1986) Nurturance, empathy, and assertiveness are influenced by heredity.  The heritability of aggressiveness may be as high as.50 Carey (1997).  Genes constrain the ways in which environments affect personality traits (Kagan, 2003). Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

26.  Culture influences personality. may not be captured in the 5-factor model  Cultures differ in individualism/collectivism. individualist cultures  Emphasis is placed on independence and individual achievement. collectivist cultures  emphasis on social connectedness  define the self in terms of group membership  Psychologists warn against overemphasizing cultural differences in personality. The goal for all individuals should be to enhance self-esteem. A sense of personal control over one’s life predicts well-being in all cultures. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

27.  Social Cognitive Theory Personality is defined as a collection of learned behaviors acquired through social interactions.  The Situation-Trait Debate: Walter Mischel (1968) stresses the importance of factors within the situation and person in accounting for behavior views trait as conditional probability  A particular action will occur in response to a particular situation.  Situations can modify personality traits.  example: lack of social support can increase neuroticism Evidence suggests that traits are stable over time and across situations. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

28.  Internal, environmental, and behavioral variables interact to influence personality.  Self-Efficacy a person’s perception of his or her ability to perform competently whatever is attempted

29.  Self-Efficacy Bandura (1997) the perception people have of their ability to perform competently whatever they attempt high self-efficacy  persist in efforts, belief in success low self-efficacy  expect failure, avoid challenges  Locus of Control Rotter (1966, 1990) internal locus of control  see selves as primarily in control of their behavior and its consequences external locus of control  perceive events as in the hands of fate, luck, or chance Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

30.  Observation used in hospitals, clinics, schools, and workplaces behavioral assessment  Psychologists count and record the frequency of particular behaviors.  often used in behavior modification programs in treatment  time-consuming; behavior may be misinterpreted  Interviews used to help in diagnosis and treatment structured interview  The content of the questions and the manner in which they are asked are carefully planned ahead of time.  Comparisons can be made between different subjects.  Rating Scales provide standardized format, focus on relevant traits Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

31.  Inventory paper and pencil test with questions about a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors scored according to a standard procedure used to measure several dimensions of personality  Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) now revised as MMPI-2 used to screen for and diagnose psychiatric problems and disorders the most extensively researched and widely used personality test Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

32.  Consists of 10 clinical scales and 3 validity scales  Validity Scales discerns those who are attempting to look healthier than they are and those attempting to appear disturbed  psychologist-evaluated clinical scales in light of validity scales  more than 115 translations of the MMPI are in use Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

33.  California Personality Inventory (CPI) developed to assess personality in normal individuals does not include any questions designed to reveal psychiatric illness useful in predicting school achievement, leadership, and executive success  Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) based on Jung’s theory of personality measures normal individual differences on 4 personality dimensions popular in business and educational settings Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

34.  Projective Tests consist of inkblots, drawings of ambiguous human situations, or incomplete sentences no correct or incorrect responses inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or conflicts are projected onto the test materials include Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

35.  The test taker is asked to describe 10 inkblots.  Responses can be used to diagnose disorders.  Critics argue that results are too dependent on the judgment of the examiner.  Exner (1993) developed the comprehensive system for scoring.  provides normative data for comparison of responses

36.  Developed by Henry Murray (1935)  Consists of 1 blank card and 19 cards showing vague or ambiguous black-and-white drawings of human figures  The test taker describes the drawings. The descriptions are thought to reveal inner feelings, conflicts, and motives.  Critics argue that: The test relies too heavily on the interpretation of the examiner. Responses may reflect temporary states and may not indicate more permanent aspects of personality. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved