1. Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services9
Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services

2. Core Case Study: Where Have All the Honeybees Gone?
Bees play a key role in pollination
Globally, about one third of the food supply comes from insect-pollinated plants
Currently, agriculture depends heavily on a single species of bee
Suffering from Colony Collapse Disorder
Each year, 30-50% of colonies in Europe and the U.S.
Watch this Bee CCD Viddy…

3. Case Study: Protecting Honeybees and Other Pollinators
Failure to protect honeybees
Loss of vital ecosystem services
Farmers are:
Breeding bees resistant to harmful parasitic mites and fungi
Raising their own colonies
Improving bee nutrition

4. Honeybee Figure 9-1: European honeybee drawing nectar from a flower.
Fig. 9-1, p. 190

5. Science Focus 9.1: The Passenger Pigeon: Gone Forever
Passenger pigeon hunted to extinction by 1900
Commercial hunters used "stool pigeons” (decoy), giant nets, or setting fire to nesting trees
Archeological record shows evidence of five mass extinctions
Human activities: hastening more extinctions?

6. Human Activities Are Destroying and Degrading Biodiversity
Human activity has disturbed at least half of the earth’s land surface
Fills in wetlands
Converts grasslands and forests to crop fields and urban areas
Degraded aquatic biodiversity in a wide array of ways

7. 9-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Loss of Species and Ecosystem Services?
Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster than they were before modern humans arrived on the earth
By the end of this century, the extinction rate is expected to be 10,000 times higher than that background rate

8. Levels of Species Extinction
Biological extinction
No species member alive
Trophic cascade - Trophic cascades occur when predators limit the density and/or behavior of their prey and thereby enhance survival of the next lower trophic level.
Mass extinction
Many species in a short amount of time
Five mass extinctions; recovery requires millions of years

9. Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply
Background extinction – continuous low level extinctions which occur naturally (without human involvement, since beginning of time…)
Extinction rate – the percent or number of species that go extinct in a certain time period
Mass extinction (50-90% of species) Causes?

10. Some Human Activities Hasten Extinctions and Threaten Ecosystem Services
Background extinction rate
1 extinct species / 1 million species / year (based on studies of marine fossils, since humans are a “young” species..)
Extinction rates have risen recently
Using data for recent extinctions among birds and mammals (which are pretty well known), we can estimate that about 1% of species go extinct every 100 years.
This means that about 1 in every 10,000 species are currently going extinct each year.
These estimates suggest that the current extinction rate is about times greater than the background rate. Other estimates that have been made range from about 40 times the background rate, to 10,000 times the background rate.

11. Animal Species Prematurely Extinct Due to Human Activities

12. Some Human Activities Hasten Extinctions and Threaten Ecosystem Services (cont’d.)
Rate of extinction and threats to ecosystem services likely to rise sharply in the next years
Due to harmful human impacts
Biodiversity hotspots
Extinction rates projected to be much higher than average
Biologically diverse environments are being eliminated or fragmented

13. Thinking About Extinction
How might your lifestyle change if human activities contribute to the extinction of up to half of the world’s identified species during this century? How might this affect the lives of any children or grandchildren you might have? Think about two aspects of your lifestyle that contribute to this threat to the earth’s natural capital.

14. Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms
Endangered species
So few members that the species could soon become extinct
Threatened species (vulnerable species)
Still enough members to survive, but numbers declining
May soon be endangered

15. Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms (cont’d
Regionally extinct
In areas a species is normally found
Functionally (ecologically) extinct
To the point at which species can no longer play a functional role in the ecosystem

16. Figure 9-2: Endangered natural capital: These four critically endangered species are threatened with extinction, largely because of human activities. The number below each photo indicates the estimated total number of individuals of that species remaining in the wild, as of 2012.
Fig. 9-2, p. 193

17. Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with Premature Extinction

18. Characteristics of Species That Are Prone to Ecological and Biological Extinction

19. Percentage of Various Species Threatened with Premature Extinction

20. Endangered Species
List 2 critically endangered species (use binomal nomenclature)
Why are they endangered?
How many are left?
Where are they located?
Create a food web for each species
iucnredlist.org (International Union for Conservation of Nature)

21. Quiz

22. Quiz Define pollination. Why are bees important?
What type of honeybee is used to pollinate most crops that require pollination?
What does CCD stand for?
What is CCD?

23. 9-2 Why Should We Care about the Rising Rate of Species Extinction?
We should avoid speeding up the extinction of wild species because:
Of the ecosystem and economic services they provide
It can take millions of years for nature to recover from large-scale extinctions
Many people believe that species have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to us (ethics)

24. Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital
Major reasons to prevent extinctions
Species provide vital ecosystem services
Help keep us alive and support our economies
Many species also contribute economic services
Plants for food, fuel, lumber, and medicine
Ecotourism

25. Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (cont’d.)
It will take 5-10 million years to regain species biodiversity after this century’s extinctions
Many people believe species have an intrinsic right to exist
How do we decide which species to protect?

26. Nature’s Pharmacy
Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia, Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer
Rosy periwinkle Cathranthus roseus, Madagascar Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia
Rauvolfia
Rauvolfia sepentina, Southeast Asia Anxiety, high blood pressure
Figure 9-6: Natural capital. These plant species are examples of nature’s pharmacy. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, scientists can usually produce them synthetically. The active ingredients in nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms.
Neem tree
Azadirachta indica, India Treatment of many diseases, insecticide, spermicides
Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea, Europe Digitalis for heart failure
Cinchona
Cinchona ledogeriana, South America Quinine for malaria treatment
Fig. 9-6, p. 196

27. Many species of wildlife such as this endangered hyacinth macaw in Mato Grosso, Brazil, are sources of beauty and pleasure. It is endangered because of habitat loss and illegal capture in the wild by pet traders.
Figure 9-7: Many species of wildlife such as this endangered hyacinth macaw in Mato Grosso, Brazil, are sources of beauty and pleasure. It is endangered because of habitat loss and illegal capture in the wild by pet traders.
Fig. 9-7, p. 196

28. 9-3 How Are We Threatening Species and Ecosystem Services?
The greatest threats to any species are (in order):
Loss or degradation of its habitat
Harmful invasive species
Human population growth
Pollution
Climate change
Overexploitation

29. Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO
Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation
Invasive (nonnative) species
Population and resource use growth
Pollution
Climate change
Overexploitation

30. Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species (cont’d.)
Habitat fragmentation
Large intact habitat divided by roads, crops, and urban development
National parks and nature reserves as habitat islands

31. Causes of Depletion and Premature Extinction of World Species

32. Indian Tiger
Range 100 years ago
Range today
Black Rhino
Range in 1700
Range today
Natural capital degradation: These maps reveal the reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of severe habitat loss and fragmentation and illegal hunting for some of their valuable body parts. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for human habitation and farming? Explain.
African Elephant
Probable range 1600
Range today
Asian or Indian Elephant
Former range
Range today
Figure 9-8: Natural capital degradation: These maps reveal the reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of severe habitat loss and fragmentation and illegal hunting for some of their valuable body parts. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for human habitation and farming? Explain.
Stepped Art
Fig. 9-8, p. 198

33. We Have Moved Disruptive Species into Some Ecosystems
Many species introductions are beneficial
Nonnative species may have no natural:
Predators, competitors, parasites, pathogens
Nonnative species can crowd out native species
Invasive species

34. Deliberately introduced species
Purple loosestrife
European starling
African honeybee (“Killer bee”)
Nutria
Salt cedar (Tamarisk)
Marine toad (Giant toad)
Water hyacinth
Japanese beetle
Hydrilla
European wild boar (Feral pig)
These are some of the estimated 7,100 harmful invasive species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States.
Accidentally introduced species
Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout)
Argentina fire ant
Brown tree snake
Eurasian ruffe
Common pigeon (Rock dove)
Formosan termite
Zebra mussel
Asian long-horned beetle
Asian tiger mosquito
Gypsy moth larvae
Figure 9-9: These are some of the estimated 7,100 harmful invasive species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States.
Stepped Art
Fig. 9-9, p. 199

35. Case Study: The Kudzu Vine and Kudzu Bugs
Imported from Japan in the 1930s
Help control soil erosion
Very difficult to kill
Could there be benefits of kudzu?
Kudzu bug – imported from Japan
Can kill Kudzu vine
Also kills soybeans

36. Kudzu has grown over this car in the U.S. state of Georgia
Figure 9-10: Kudzu has grown over this car in the U.S. state of Georgia.
Fig. 9-10, p. 200

37. Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can Disrupt Ecosystems
Argentina fire ant – introduced in the 1930s
Reduced populations of native ants
Painful stings can kill
Pesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened conditions
Tiny parasitic flies may help control fire ants

38. Case Study: Burmese Pythons Are Eating Their Way through the Florida Everglades
Accidentally introduced
Reproduce rapidly and are hard to kill
Greatly depleted Everglades populations of:
Rabbits, foxes, raccoons, opossums, and deer
* The next slide shows University of Florida researchers holding a 15 foot long Burmese Python, caught in the everglades after it had eaten a 6 foot long American Alligator

39. Figure 9-11: University of Florida researchers hold a 4
Figure 9-11: University of Florida researchers hold a 4.6-meter-long (15-foot-long), 74-kilogram (162-pound) Burmese python captured in Everglades National Park shortly after it had eaten a 1.8-meter-long (6-foot-long) American alligator.
Fig. 9-11, p. 201

40. Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce Threats from Invasive Species
Research programs identifying invaders
Establishing international treaties banning transfer between countries
Public education about exotic pets and plants
What else can be done to prevent invasive species?

41. Figure 9-12: Individuals matter
Figure 9-12: Individuals matter. Here are some ways to prevent or slow the spread of harmful invasive species. Questions: Which two of these actions do you think are the most important to take? Why? Which of these actions do you plan to take?
Fig. 9-12, p. 202

42. Other Causes of Species Extinctions
Human population growth and overconsumption
Degrading habitat
Pollution
Bioaccumulation can cause extinctions of species not directly affected by pollution
Climate change
Some species will become extinct, some will spread

43. DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys)
25 ppm
DDT in large fish (needle fish)
2 ppm
DDT in small fish (minnows)
0.5 ppm
DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm
Figure 9-13: Bioaccumulation and biomagnification: DDT is a fat-soluble chemical that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. In a food chain or web, the accumulated DDT is biologically magnified in the bodies of animals at each higher trophic level, as it was in the case of a food chain in the U.S. state of New York, illustrated here. (Dots in this figure represent DDT.) Question: How does this story demonstrate the value of pollution prevention?
DDT in water ppm, or 3 ppt
Stepped Art
Fig. 9-13, p. 202

44. Case Study: Polar Bears and Climate Change
Live only in the Arctic
Arctic ice is melting
Decreasing polar bear habitat
Polar bears must swim farther between ice
Weaker females; less reproduction

45. Figure 9-14: On floating ice in Svalbard, Norway, a polar bear feeds on its ringed seal prey. Question: Do you think it matters that the polar bear may become extinct during this century primarily because of human activities? Explain.
Fig. 9-14, p. 204

46. Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity
Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants
Animal parts
Pets
Plants for landscaping and enjoyment
Prevention
Research and education

47. Figure 9-15: A poacher in South Africa killed this critically endangered northern white rhinoceros for its two horns. This species is now extinct in the wild. With a rhino horn worth up to $300,000 on the Asian black market, thieves have been stealing the horns from museums, antique stores, and even private collections. Question: What would you say if you could talk to the poacher who killed this animal for its horns?
Fig. 9-15, p. 205

48. A Rising Demand for Bushmeat Threatens Some African Species
West and Central African wild animals
Supply major cities with exotic meats
Hunting has driven one species to extinction
Miss Waldron’s red colobus monkey
Threatened species:
Monkeys, apes, antelope, elephants, and hippos

49. Bush Meat: Lowland Gorilla

50. Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds
70% of the world’s bird species are declining
Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds’ breeding habitats
Forests cleared for farms, lumber plantations, roads, and development
Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative species
These species eat the birds

51. Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (cont’d.)
Exposure to pesticides
Overexploitation
For pets
Birds are indicator species
Respond quickly to environmental changes
Birds perform critical ecosystem and economic services
Extinctions could affect many other species

52. This endangered Attwater’s prairie chicken lives in a wildlife refuge in the U.S. state of Texas.
Figure 9-17: Endangered natural capital: This endangered Attwater’s prairie chicken lives in a wildlife refuge in the U.S. state of Texas.
Fig. 9-17, p. 206

53. 9-4 How Can We Sustain Wild Species and Their Ecosystem Services?
We can reduce species extinction and sustain ecosystem services by:
Establishing and enforcing national environmental laws and international treaties
Creating protected wildlife sanctuaries
Taking precautionary measures to prevent such harm

54. 9-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? (1)
We can use existing environmental laws and treaties and work to enact new laws designed to prevent species extinction and protect overall biodiversity.
We can help to prevent species extinction by creating and maintaining wildlife refuges, gene banks, botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums.

55. 9-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? (2)
According to the precautionary principle, we should take measures to prevent or reduce harm to the environment and to human health, even if some of the cause- and-effect relationships have not been fully established, scientifically.

56. International Treaties and National Laws Help to Protect Species
1975 – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
Signed by 172 countries
Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD)
Focuses on ecosystems
Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.)

57. Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act
Endangered Species Act (ESA) – and later amended in 1982, 1985, and 1988
Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad
National Marine Fisheries Service for ocean species
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for all others

58. ESA
Endangered Species Act (ESA): 1973 and later amended in 1982, 1983, and 1985 – Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad and outlaws the sale of these species or products made from these species
Hot Spots – areas of especially rare and imperiled species
Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) colony – allows habitat destruction in exchange for habitat conservation/protections elsewhere

59. Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (cont’d.)
Forbids federal agencies (except Defense) from funding or authorizing projects that jeopardize endangered or threatened species
In 2012, 1,394 species officially listed
Offer incentives to private property owners to help

60. Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (cont’d.)
Is the ESA a failure?
Species are listed only when in serious danger
Conditions for more than half of listed species are stable or improving
Budget is about 57 cents per U.S. citizen

61. Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (2)
Mixed reviews of the ESA
Weaken it
Repeal it
Modify it
Strengthen it
Simplify it
Streamline it

62. Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act (2)
Suggested changes to ESA
Increase the budget
Develop recovery plans more quickly
Establish a core of the endangered organism’s survival habitat

63. Confiscated Products Made from Endangered Species

64. The American bald eagle has been removed from the U. S
The American bald eagle has been removed from the U.S. endangered species list. Here, an eagle is about to catch a fish in its powerful talons.
Figure 9-19: The American bald eagle has been removed from the U.S. endangered species list. Here, an eagle is about to catch a fish in its powerful talons.
Fig. 9-19, p. 209

65. We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas
In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt established the first federal wildlife refuge
Pelican Island, Florida
Wildlife refuges
Most are wetland sanctuaries
More needed for endangered plants
Are not immune from disturbance

66. Figure 9-20: The Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge in Florida was America’s first National Wildlife Refuge.
Fig. 9-20, p. 210

67. Seed Banks, Botanical Gardens, and Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Species
Preserve genetic material of endangered plants
Botanical gardens and arboreta
Living plants
Farms can raise organisms for commercial sale

68. Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species
Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species
Egg pulling
Captive breeding
Artificial insemination
Embryo transfer
Use of incubators
Cross-fostering

69. Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species (cont’d.)
Goal of ultimately releasing/reintroducing populations to the wild
Limited space and funds

70. The Monterey Bay Aquarium in Monterey, California (USA), contains this tidewater pool, which is used to train rescued sea otter pups to survive in the wild.
Figure 9-21: The Monterey Bay Aquarium in Monterey, California (USA), contains this tidewater pool, which is used to train rescued sea otter pups to survive in the wild.
Fig. 9-21, p. 211

71. Figure 9-22: Individuals matter: You can help to prevent the extinction of species. Questions: Which two of these actions do you believe are the most important? Why?
Fig. 9-22, p. 212

72. The Precautionary Principle
Act to prevent or reduce harm when preliminary evidence indicates acting is needed
Species are the primary components of biodiversity
Should we focus on the preservation of species or the preservation of ecosystems?