1. COGNITION/THINKING
MODULE 34

2. THINKING
Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts.
The ultimate result of the above building blocks can be the higher processes that we call reasoning, imagining, judging, deciding, problem-solving, creativity---and—sometimes—genius.

3. COGNITION/THINKING
A concept is a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Prototype is a mental image or best example of a category-formed on the basis of frequently experienced features. (natural concept for a bird)
Testing concepts can be hard since they are not observable. We must infer their influence on people’s thinking indirectly by studying their observable side effects.
Concept of the color red –need to observe whether person responds same way you do to stimuli that you both call ‘red’

4. TYPES OF CONCEPTS There are two types of concepts
Natural concepts: imprecise mental classifications that develop out of our everyday experiences.
Most of the concepts in our everyday life
Artificial concepts: concepts defined by a set of rules or characteristics, such as dictionary definition or mathematical equations.
Most of the concepts learned in school- example-definition of triangle that you learned in school.

5. CONCEPT HIERACHIES

6. COGNITIVE MAPS
As we saw before, cognitive maps are mental representations of a given place or situation.
Just the mental image is not enough however. Along with the visual cortex, the frontal lobe of the brain provides us with information on the episode, the context and stimulus of a situation.
Ex. What shape are a German Shepherd’s ears?
--probably consulted a visual image of a German shepherd stored in your memory.

7. Creativity
The ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable.
Studies show that a 120+ on intelligence tests support creativity.
Yet, while intelligence matters, there is more to creativity than what those tests measure.
Convergent Thinking: determine the single best solution
IQ and other aptitude tests
Divergent Thinking: expands the number of possible problem solutions
How many uses can you think of for a brick?

8. Sternberg’s Components of Creative Thought
1. Expertise: well-developed base of knowledge
2. Imaginative Thinking Skills: can see things in new ways
3. A venturesome personality: seeks new experiences
4. Intrinsic Motivation: driven by interest
5. A Creative Environment: sparks, supports, refines ideas

9. Solving problems and making decisions
Module 35
Solving problems and making decisions

10. MAKING INFERENCES
To help us figure out the episode, the context and stimulus of a situation we do have tools:
Schema: General frameworks that provide expectations about topics, events, objects, people and situations.
Assimilation (integrating new info with what you already know) v. Accommodation (if you find a discrepancy b/w new input and existing schemas-you overcome it by changing what you know)
Script: Schemas about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings.
Ex. We have scripts for going to a restaurant, using the library, listening to a lecture, going on a first date, and even making love

11. Types of Problems Inducing Structure Arrangement Transformation
Requires you to determine the relationship between elements
Arrangement
Requires you to arrange elements in a way that fulfills particular criteria
Transformation
Requires you to make a series of changes to fulfill a specific goal

12. PROBLEM SOLVING
When we are faced with a problem, we have a few options for figuring out a solution.
Algorithms: Step by step problem solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied. Designed to solve particular kinds of problems for which you have all the necessary information
Heuristics: Simple, basic rules that serve as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks.
They do not guarantee a correct solution.
Quicker than algorithms, but more prone to error.

13. INSIGHT
Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight.

14. INSIGHT
Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience), it activates the right temporal cortex (Jung-Beeman & others, 2004). The time between not knowing the solution and realizing it is about 0.3 seconds.

15. SOME USEFUL HEURISTIC STRATEGIES
Working Backward
Searching For Analogies
Compare the problem to similar problem from the past
Forming subgoals
Develop intermediate steps to simplify the problem
Changing representation of the problem
Might change representation from verbal to visual

16. ALGORITHMS VS. HEURISTICS
Unscramble
S P L O Y O C H Y G
Algorithm
all 907,208 combinations
Heuristic
throw out all YY combinations
other heuristics?

17. How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?
MATCHSTICK PROBLEM
How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

18. THE MATCHSTICK PROBLEM
SOLUTION TO THE MATCHSTICK PROBLEM

19. PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS
One problem with heuristic are mental sets.
When faced with problems, we have a tendency to approach it in a familiar way.
Especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem—with matchstick example, we may have fixated in our 2-D perspective
Mental set: the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for previous problems.

20. PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS
Another problem with relying on heuristics is called functional fixedness, a sort of mental set issue.
Functional Fixedness: The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose.

21. JUDGING AND DECISION-MAKING
Along with mental sets, bias can make heuristics a faulty decision making tool.
Confirmation bias: makes us pay attention to events that confirm our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts them.
Hindsight bias: “I knew it all along”
Representative bias: (Representative Heuristic) Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to match particular prototype.
Availability bias: (Availability Heuristic) Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind we presume such events are common ( fear factor) Examples?

22. Other Barriers to Problem Solving
Irrelevant Information: Focusing on unnecessary information can hinder ability to solve problem
Unnecessary Constraints: Making assumptions can create constraints that don’t exist, hindering problem solving ability

23. Representative Heuristic Example
Steve is very shy and withdrawn. He is very helpful, but has little interest in people. A meek and tidy soul, he has a need for order and structure and a passion for detail. Is Steve more likely to be a salesperson or librarian?
75 to 1 is the ratio of salespeople to librarian

24. Representativeness Heuristic Example
Linda is 31, singe, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy in college. As a student, she was deeply concerned with discrimination and other social issues, and she participated in antinuclear demonstrations. Which statement is more likely?
1. Linda is a bank teller
2. Linda is a bank teller and active in the feminist movement.

25. Availability Heuristic Examples
You’re 170 times more likely to die in a car than you are in a plane
You’re 400 times more likely to die in your bathtub than in a shark attack
You’re 16 times more likely to be killed in a dog attack than a shark attack (2010)

26. OVERCONFIDENCE The tendency to be more confident than correct.
We tend to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments
Across various tasks, people overestimate what their performance was, is, or will be.
Can have bad/good consequences
People who err on the side of overconfidence live more happily, find it easier to make tough decisions, and seem more credible.
When given feedback, people can learn to be more realistic about the accuracy of their judgements.

27. FRAMING
The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Effects-advertising, business, economic.
Those that understand framing can use it to influence important decisions.

28. Belief Bias Tendency for our pre-existing beliefs to distort logic.
This can sometimes lead to invalid conclusions seeming valid or valid conclusions seem invalid.
Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the bias on which they formed has been discredited.

29. Intuition Our fast, automatic, unreasoned feelings and thoughts
Intuition is huge: unconscious influences on our judgements; sleeping on it is a useful strategy
Intuition is adaptive: gut feelings are often the result of learned associations
Intuition is implicit knowledge based on experience

30. Review
Crash Couse Review