1. Fundamentals of Educational Research
David L. Brown, Ph.D
Texas A & M Commerce
EDCI 695
Research Methodology

2. Types of Sampling
Simple Random Sampling means that the researcher selects participants (or units, such as schools) for the sample so that any sample of size N has an equal probability of being selected from the population.
Simple Random Sampling is the most popular and rigorous form of sampling from a population.
Purposeful or Convenience Sampling means that the researcher selects individuals because they are available, convenient, and represents some characteristics the researcher seeks to study.
Stratified Sampling means that the researcher stratifies the population on some specific characteristic (i.e., gender, age) and then using simple random sampling, sample from each stratum of the population.
Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

3. Population and Samples Proportional Stratified Sampling Approach
Target Population
Sample
Sample
Population Sample
All high school teachers in one city All high school biology teachers
Students in all community colleges Students in one community college
Adult educators in all schools of education Adult educators in five schools of education in the Midwest
Proportional Stratified Sampling Approach
Population (N = 9,000)
Random Sampling
Boys N = 6,000
200
.66 of population
Girls N = 3,000
100
.33 of population
Sample = 300
Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

4. Stratified Random Sampling
*For this study, sites with six or less classrooms were considered small sites. Sites with more than six classrooms were considered large sites.

5. Selection of Sample

6. Obtaining Informed Consent
An informed consent is a statement that participants sign before they participate in the research.
It is an agreement between the researcher and the participants.
The researcher agrees to protect the rights of the participants.
The participant agrees to be involved in the study and acknowledges that their rights are protected.
Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

7. Important Considerations
Permission is necessary before you can enter a site and collect data.
Approval comes from leaders or persons of authority in organizations.
Permission is obtained formally in a letter of request:
Purpose of the study
Amount of time you will be at the site collecting data
Time required of participants
How the data or results will be used
State specific activities to be conducted
Benefits to the organization or individual
Provisions to protect the anonymity of participants
Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

8. Securing Different Types of Permissions
In most educational studies, permissions are needed from several individuals and groups before you can gather data. Permissions may be required from:
Institutions or organizations (e.g., school district)
Specific sites (e.g., the secondary school)
An individual participant or group of participants and their parents (e.g., 10th graders and their parents)
Your own campus (i.e., your university or college institutional review board)
Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

9. Elements of Informed Consent
Title of Research Project
Voluntary participation
Right to withdraw
Purpose
Procedures
Right to ask questions, obtain results, and right to anonymity
No known risks
Benefits
Signatures needed/Assent of child
Information about investigator
Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

10. Types of Variables and Constructs
An Independent variable is an attribute or characteristic that influences or effects an outcome or dependent variable.
Researchers study independent variables to see what effect or influence they have on the outcome. For instance, consider this research question:
Do students who spend more instructional time in class have higher math scores than students who spend less time?
Explanation: Time on math instruction influences the outcome, which is math scores.
A Dependent variable is an attribute or characteristic that is dependent on or influenced by the independent variable.
Examples of dependent variables are:
Achievement scores on a test
Organizational climate of a junior high school
Leadership skills of principals
Cost-effectiveness of student affairs programs in colleges
Ask yourself, “What is the outcome in this study?”
Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

11. Preparing and Organizing the Data for Analysis
Data Set

12. Teacher Implementation Fidelity
One of the biggest challenges of any study of alternative programs is determining the degree to which the experimental program actually gets implemented.
This is particularly problematic when the research is studying classes in which teachers are just learning how to implement a new program.
Does an evaluation of a program that is being implemented by novices and compared to teachers implementing long-standing control programs lead to a fair evaluation?
Observations of both the experimental and control classes should be conducted to determine the extent to which the actual experience of the two groups differs.
Researchers should design methods to closely monitor program implementation and collect data for analysis.