1. Psychology
Attachment

2. Learning theory as an explanation for attachment
One explanation of how attachments form is by using the principles of classical conditioning – the unconditioned stimulus (US) of food creates the unconditioned response (UR) of pleasure. An item can become a conditioned stimulus (CS) if it is associated with an unconditioned stimulus. The person who provides the food starts out as a neutral stimulus (not associated with any response), but, over time the NS becomes associated with the US because they are present at the same time (mother + food). This association leads to the mother becoming a CS and the infants gives a conditioned response (pleasure) to the mother.
An alternate account is operant conditioning, where the food is viewed as a reinforcing reward increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated (the infant will look for the provider of food). The food is the primary reinforcer and the mother is the secondary reinforcer.
Social learning theory suggests infants become attached because they model the behaviours they observe.

3. Evaluation of learning theory
A limitation of this theory is that food does not seem to be key element in attachment, found by a study Harlow (1959) conducted. The rhesus monkeys preferred the cloth-covered ‘mother’ to the wire mother with food attached. Other research with humans also shows that food is not a key factor. Shaffer and Emerson (1964) observed Glaswegian babies and found that they were moth attached to the person who interacted with them most.
Another limitation is that it oversimplifies the complex human behaviour of attachment. It is possible that this process contributes to attachment but does not seem logical to suggest that it is the only reason a child becomes attached.
In addition, the theory does not explain the emotional nature of attachments. It may explain why an infant wishes to become close to the mother but not how the infant comes to feel such intense emotions towards their attachment figure.

4. Bowlby’s theory as an explanation for attachment
Ethologists developed the concept of imprinting to describe what happens when an animal such as a gosling hatches (forms a bond with the first thing it sees). Bowlby decided that the same thing must be true for humans. Behaviours that have survival value are naturally selected by evolutionary processes. Bowlby suggested that infants are most sensitive to becoming attached between 6 and 9 months and that after 2 ½ years attachments are unlikely to form (a sensitive period). He believed that infants form one primary attachment (monotropy – leaning towards one person), which is determined by the emotional sensitivity of caregivers. Secondary attachments are important too as an emotional ‘safety net’ and also for social development.
Short-term effects: attachment creates an internal working model about how relationships ‘work’.
Long-term effects: individuals who have a secure attachment in infancy continue to have secure attachments with their friends, partners and their own children (continuity hypothesis).

5. Evaluation of Bowlby’s theory of attachment
A strength of this theory is that it had led to many real-world applications in terms of the care of children. It is extremely influential because is explains ‘how’ in terms of maternal sensitivity and ‘why’ in terms of natural selection.
There is also lots of research support for the concept of monotropy and the continuity hypothesis.
A limitation is that there are alternative explanations for continuity. The temperament hypothesis suggests that later social and emotional behaviour is determined by an infant’s innate temperament.
Another limitation is that some of the key concepts are difficult to test empirically (for example, the notion of adaptiveness is an evolutionary argument that is impossible to demonstrate through empirical research).

6. The strange situation
The strange situation is a method of assessing quality of attachment in infants (attachment types). The idea was to place infants in a situation of mild anxiety and observe their attachment behaviours. The eight episodes, each lasting 3 minutes, were: (1) parent and infant play with toys laid out in the room, (2) parent sits while infants play (3)stranger enters and talks to parent (4)parent leaves, stranger offers comfort if necessary (5) parent returns, greets infants, stranger leaves (6) parent leaves infant along (7) stranger enters and offers comfort (8)parent returns, greets infant, offers comfort.
The infants responses are observed when left alone with the stranger (securely attached infant shows high levels of stranger anxiety). The infant’s responses are observed when the parent leaves the room and then again when the parent returns. Observations were recorded every 15 second, noting two items (the behaviour and intensity from 1-7).

7. Evaluate the strange situation
A strength of the strange situation is that the technique is that it has proved to be very useful.
A limitation is that it lacks ecological validity, the environment is not the same as everyday situations in which parents and infants interact. In addition, the technique may not be very valid as is assesses the way an infant reacts to the parent who is present (which would be fine if that parent is the primary attachment figure and attachment type is determined by that relationship).
As well as this, the Strange Situation was developed in an individualist culture (America) and the classification may not apply to all cultural groups. Individualist cultures are encouraged to be individual, collectivist cultures are encouraged to share and depend on others.
Another limitation is that the use of the strange situation raises ethical issues, as it causes distress to infants (some of which is quite extreme). However, this harm is seen as acceptable if it is no more distress than would be experienced in everyday life.

8. Attachment types
Ainsworth identified three main attachment types by observing 106 middle class, American infants in the strange situation. Infants who greeted their mother on return with a casual greeting, felt friendly to the stranger with low anxiety, and showed generally low separation anxiety were seen as securely attached. 66% of infants displayed this behaviour.
Infants who avoided of ignored their mother on return, treating the stranger in the same manner, and showed little distress when left alone were seen as insecure-avoidant. 22% of infants displayed this behaviour.
Infants who resisted the mother on return (showing some effort), showed angry behaviour towards the stranger and mother, and was extremely distressed when left alone, showing high separation anxiety were seen as being insecure-resistant. 12% of infants displayed this behaviour.
In follow-up studies it was found that some infants displayed inconsistent behaviours, suggesting a mixture of attachment types.
Attachment disorder (either inhibited – withdrawn, or disinhibited – overly friendly to everyone) are the consequence of an infant’s inability to form attachments during early development.

9. Evaluation of attachment types
One limitation of the idea of attachment types is that there are cultural variations in the distribution of attachment types. Another limitation concerns the stability of the attachment type classifications. As well as this, the time taken to determine attachment type was only 20 minutes, so it may not be a true representation of their attachment type. In addition, it presumes that you can categorise attachment behaviour when it might be more accurate to represent them as continuous.

10. Influence of attachment research on child care
Influence on day care: when children attend day care there is a disruption of attachment, which research shows can have negative effects. The research also shows that there is a difference between physical and emotional separation, with emotional separation leading to more negative effects. These negative effects can be avoided if substitute emotional care can be provided.
Robertson & Robertson: films of brief separation showed both these points.
Bowlby also proposed that secondary attachments are important in providing emotional safety nets for children.
Influence on hospital care: attachment research demonstrated the negative effects of parental absence on children who were in hospital. A solution to this is to have unrestricted visiting hours and overnight accommodation for parents. Another solution is for hospital staff to ensure correct emotional care and support.
Research by Bifulco et al. (1992) showed that experience of loss of a primary attachment figure in childhood may increase the likelihood of depression in later life (especially true in children under the ago of .

11. Influence on institutional care: research into privation had a profound effect on the way children are cared for in child institutions because it showed that a lack of attachments led to permanent long-term attachment problems, such as forming relationships. This suggests that it is important to provide substitute emotional care so that children can form attachments in early life.
Hodges and Tizard research suggested that privation had long term effects so it is important to provide attachment figures as early as possible
Radke-Yarrow et al. showed that lack of emotional care was associated with insecure attachment.
Influence on adoption: research by Rutter et al. and Hodges and Tizard showed that before the age of 6 months, adopted children appear to recover quite well. After this time it may take longer to recover. Great care should also be taken when choosing parents for adoption to avoid relationship breakdowns. Children who fail to form attachment experience disinhibited attachment and have difficulty forming attachments in later life.
Influence on parental care: attachment research suggests that women who have developed insecure attachments early in life may later form similar attachments with their own children, forming a ‘cycle of privation’. Maternal sensitivity may be crucial in the formation of secure attachments. Secondary attachment have also shown to be important.

12. Influence of day care research on child care practices
Influence on day care providers: researched by NICHD, EPPE and Clarke-Stewart indicated that quality of day care setting is probably the most important factor in ensuring positive outcomes. One of the main ways to ensure this high quality day care is to have a low staff-child ratio and high quality staff (experienced, trained etc.).
Influence on parental decisions about child care: The NICHD and EPPE studies into both aggression and peer relations has shown that children who begin day care under the age of 2 may have an increased risk of anti-social behaviour, though this association disappeared by age 10. It also indicates that more than 30 hours per week in day care may result in an increased risk of problem behaviour including aggressiveness. However, research has also shown that some children may benefit less than other in day care (individual differences). It may also be the case that children from socially-disadvantages homes benefit more from day care.