1. Bell Work
On some college football teams, players are rewarded for outstanding performance with a gold star on their helmets. This practice best illustrates the use of
Set points.
360 degree feedback
Incentives
Refractory periods
Instincts

2. Motivation

4. Motivation
A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

5. Basic Concepts
Motives – internal states that arouse and direct behavior toward specific objects or goals
Needs – states of tension within a person

6. Motive Psychology
People differ in the type and strength of their motives
These differences are measurable
These differences cause or are associated with important life outcomes
Differences will be stable over time
Motives can answer: why do people do what they do? Traits answer the question how people do what they do

7. Early Motivation Theories
Motivation is based on our instincts:
A behavior that is patterned throughout a species and is UNLEARNED.

8. Instinct Theory Explains some animal behaviors
complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
Explains some animal behaviors
Explains some human behaviors

9. Does not explain other human behaviors

10. Henry Murray’s Theory of Needs
Motive Psychology
Henry Murray’s Theory of Needs
“A need refers to a potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances”
Needs organize perception, guiding us to ‘see’ what we want (need) to see

11. Henry Murray’s Theory of Needs
Motive Psychology
Henry Murray’s Theory of Needs
Press: need-relevant aspects of the environment
Alpha press – real environment
Beta press – perceived environment

12. Henry Murray’s Theory of Needs
Motive Psychology
Henry Murray’s Theory of Needs
Apperception: the act of interpreting the environment and perceiving the meaning of what is going on in a situation
Thematic Apperception Technique (TAT)

13. Sample TAT card

14. Sample TAT card

15. TAT and Questionnaire Measures of Motives: Do They Measure Different Aspects of Motives?
McClelland argues that responses to TAT and questionnaire measures are not correlated because they measure two different types of motivation
TAT measures implicit motivation—unconscious desires, aspirations, and needs

16. TAT and Questionnaire Measures of Motives: Do They Measure Different Aspects of Motives?
Questionnaires measure explicit or self-attributed motivation—reflect a person’s self-awareness of conscious motives
Implicit motives better predict long-term behavioral trends over time

17. TAT and Questionnaire Measures of Motives: Do They Measure Different Aspects of Motives?
Explicit motives better predict responses to immediate, specific situations and to choice behaviors and attitudes
Why is this?
Why don’t we know what we really want?

18. The Big Three Motives
Achievement
Power
Intimacy

19. Need for Power
Sex differences: Largest is that men but not women with high need for power perform a variety of impulsive and aggressive behaviors
Profligate impulsive behaviors (drinking, aggression, sexual exploitation) is less likely to occur if a person has responsibility training

20. Need for Power
People with a high need for power do not deal well with frustration and conflict—show strong stress responses, including high blood pressure

21. Need for Intimacy
Recurrent preference for or readiness for warm, close, communicative interactions with others
People with a high (compared to those with low) need for intimacy:
Spend more time during day thinking about relationships
Report more pleasant emotions when around other people

22. Need for Intimacy
People with a high (compared to those with low) need for intimacy:
Smile, laugh, make more eye contact
Start up conversations more frequently and write more letters

23. Need for Intimacy
Consistent sex difference: Women, on average, have a higher need for intimacy

24. Drive-Reduction Theory
The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
The need is usually to maintain homeostasis.
tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state
regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level

25. Drive-Reduction Theory
Drive-reducing
behaviors
(eating, drinking)
Need
(e.g., for
food, water)
Drive
(hunger, thirst)
We are not only pushed by our needs but.…
Pulled by our incentives: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

28. Optimum Arousal Sometimes we do not seek homeostasis.
Sometimes we seek arousal.
Our needs go beyond reducing drives.

29. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

30. The Humanistic Tradition: The Motive to Self-Actualize
The meaning of any person’s life is found in the choices that person makes and the responsibility they take for those choices
Emphasizes the human need for growth and realizing one’s full potential

31. The Humanistic Tradition: The Motive to Self-Actualize
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Research Findings
Maslow developed his theory based on his ideas and thoughts about motivation, not on empirical research. Research that has been done on his theory has not always been supportive; however, some recent studies support the main tenets of his hierarchical theory.
Characteristics of Self-Actualizing Persons 15

32. The Humanistic Tradition: The Motive to Self-Actualize
Carl Rogers Contributions
The fully functioning person
Positive regard
Conditions of worth
While Maslow focused on the characteristics of self-actualizing individuals, Rogers focused on the ways to foster and attain self-actualization. He felt that the natural human state was to be fully functioning but, under certain conditions, people become stalled in their movement toward self-actualization. His theory explains how people lose their direction and he proposes techniques for helping get back on track.
Positive regard: the in-born need to be loved and accepted. Can be conditional or unconditional
Conditions of worth: the requirements set forth by parents or significant others for earning their positive regard. Children may become preoccupied with living up to these conditions of worth, rather than discovering what makes them happy
With enough unconditional positive regard, people can be free to accept themselves and experience unconditional positive self-regard. They can then begin to take on those characteristics of the fully functioning person and begin to actualize the self that they were meant to be.

33. The Humanistic Tradition: The Motive to Self-Actualize
Roger’s Contributions
Anxiety and Distortion
Client-Centered Therapy
Genuine Acceptance
Unconditional Positive Regard
Empathic Understanding
For Rogers, anxiety is the result of having an experience that does not fit with one’s self-conception. People will use the defense mechanisms of distortion to modify their experience, rather than their self-image, in order to reduce the threat.
Rogers approach to therapy is designed to get a person back on the path toward self-actualization. Clients are not given interpretations to their problems nor are they given any direction about what course of action to take to solve their problem. Instead, the therapist creates an atmosphere in which the client may change him or herself. The three points in the slide reference three condition that need to be met before therapeutic progress can be made

34. Bell Work
Why do you think Motivation and Emotion are linked in a unit?

35. The Humanistic Tradition: The Motive to Self-Actualize
Research on empathy
Not heritable
Can be effectively taught
Empathic ability increases with practice
Mirror neurons

37. What are some other behaviors that might be considered to have a hard-wired, evolutionary basis.

38. Perspectives on Motivation
Instinct theory
Drive reduction theory
External/Optimal Arousal theory
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

39. Drive-Reduction Theories Fail to Explain Several Aspects of Motivation
People sometimes are not motivated by internal needs 
Example: Some people fast for long period for political causes, despite feeling extreme hunger.
Sometimes, people continue being motivated even when they have a satisfied internal needs.
Example: People are often eat when they can not feel hungry.
People are often motivated by external incentives as well internal needs.
Example: If a person is hungry, he or she may choose to eat a salad instead of a cheeseburger because they want to be slimmer.

40. Maslow Fails to Address
The critics argue that Maslow’s theory doesn’t explain why higher needs often motivate people even when lower needs are unsatisfied.
Example: Ray lives in a very dangerous neighbourhood and constantly worries about safety. He make little money at his job in civil rights law, but he enjoys it because he believes that his true calling is to fight injustice.

41. Sources of Motivational Needs
Behavioral/External-punishment/reinforcement
Social-be a part of a group/imitate a role model
Biological-increase/decrease stimulation; activate senses; appease drives/needs
Cognitive-develop meaning/understanding; decrease cognitive dissonance; solve problems; eliminate threats
Affective-Feel better and happier
Conative-meet personal goals; self-actualization
Spiritual-Understand own purpose and connect to self to universe

42. Hunger is both physiological and psychological.

43. Motivation-Hunger
Stomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger
Stomach rumbling
A.L. Washburn swallowed a balloon for SCIENCE!
Time in minutes
Subject swallows
balloon, which
measures stomach
contraction
Subject presses
key each time
when hungry
Stomach contractions
Hunger pangs

44. Physiology of Hunger
Washburn’s studies showed hunger was partially related to the stomach.
But those with their stomachs removed still feel hunger.

45. Body Chemistry The hormone insulin converts glucose to fat. Glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood
provides the major source of energy for body tissues
when its level is low, signals from the stomach, intestines and liver start to signal your brain to motivate eating

46. The Brain In the 1960’s, it was discovered that hunger comes from………..
The Hypothalamus

47. The Hypothalamus & Hunger
Along the sides of the hypothalamus is the lateral hypothalamus: which brings on hunger.
Stimulate the lateral hypothalamus and even a well fed animal will begin to eat.
A lesion on the lateral hypothalamus and a starving animal will have no interest in food.

48. Hypothalamus
The ventromedial hypothalamus region depresses hunger, when the area is stimulated, animals will stop eating and when it is destroyed, it will cause the intestines to process food more rapidly. Explained why people with tumors in this region ate excessively and would gain weight.
Ghrelin is the hunger arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach.
Hunger dampening chemicals secreted by fat cells are known as leptin.

49. The Hypothalamus and Hunger
Along the lower middle section of the hypothalamus is the ventromedial hypothalamus: which depresses hunger.
Stimulate the ventromedial hypothalamus and the animal will stop eating
A lesion on the ventromedial hypothalamus the animal will continuously want to eat.

50. How does the hypothalamus work?
Two Theories
Set Point
Hypothalamus acts like a thermostat.
We are meant to be in a certain weight range.
When we fall below weight our body will increase hunger and decrease energy expenditure (Basic Metabolic Rate).
Leptin
Leptin is a protein produced by bloated fat cells.
Hypothalamus senses rises in leptin and will curb eating and increase activity.

51. The Psychology of Hunger
Externals: people whose eating is triggered more by the presence of food than internal factors.

52. Environmental Factors
Availability of rich foods: People tend to gain weight when rich foods are plentiful.
Taste Habits: People learn habits such as when and how much they eat.
Memory: The memory of what people last ate and when they ate it influences hunger.
Stress: The increased physiological arousal associated with stressful situations can stimulate hunger in some people. In other people, stress decreases hunger (Ms. Beam’s first month of teaching).
Cultural attitudes: Cultural attitudes about ideal body size and shape have a strong influence on what and how much people eat.

53. Taste Preferences
Studies have shown that people are born with certain taste preferences. (Babies)
However, people acquire most taste preferences through conditioning or observational learning.
People tend to prefer familiar foods.

54. Taste Preferences
Food tastes better and we chew less when we are hungry (beginning of a meal).
Food tastes worse and we chew more when we are not hungry (at the end of the meal).
It’s weird—the better the food tastes, the less time we leave it in our mouths.

55. Garcia Effect

56. Culture and Hunger

58. Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa
An eating disorder in which a normal weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight (below 85% of their normal body weight), yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.
Bulimia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by episodes of binging, usually overeating of high caloric foods, followed by purging (vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise).

59. Anorexia Nervosa 95% of sufferers are female
Most are between the ages of 18-30
Body image issues continue throughout rest of life
30% of persons diagnosed with anorexia nervosa die

60. Obesity Obesity is also an eating disorder.
People with diagnosed obesity are severely overweight, often over 100 pounds overweight, and the excess weight threatens their health. Obese people typically have unhealthy eating habits rather than the food obsessions of the other two disorders.
Some people may also be genetically predisposed to obesity.

61. Are these disorders cultural?

62. Factors that Cause Eating Disorders
A dramatic increase in poor body image has coincided with a rise in eating disorders among women in Western cultures.
In both anorexia and bulimia, psychological factors, such as challenging family settings and weigh-obsessed societal pressures, apparently over-whelm the homeostatic drive to maintain a balanced internal state.
In addition to cultural pressures, low self-esteem and negative emotions seem to interact with stressful life experiences to produce eating disorders.
Twin research also shows that these eating disorders may have a genetic component.

63. Body Image

64. Sexual Motivation

65. Sex is a physiologically based motive, like hunger, but it is more affected by learning and values

66. How do we find out about sex?

67. We ask!

68. Kinsey’s Studies
Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in early 1950’s).
Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
Scale of sexuality….0 to 6 where 0 is exclusively heterosexual and 6 homosexual and 7 is asexual.

69. More Kinsey Most men and half of all women have premarital sex.
Almost all men and women masturbate.
Women who had orgasms while masturbating were more likely to report having orgasms after marriage.
Good Start- but major problems with his study- sampling, questions etc….

70. Bell Work
Dr. Ligorano has devoted his professional life to researching the desires and needs that energize and direct behavior. His area of research is:
Adaptation
Emotion
Cognition
Motivation
Behavior genetics

71. Criticism of Kinsey
Sample was not random. It consisted largely of well-educated, white city dwellers.
Kinsey and his colleagues used questionable methods to gather their data, especially asking leading questions when interview subjects (framing).
Kinsey may have let his own beliefs influence his results.

72. Masters and Johnson Study
In the 1960’s William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex.
382 females and 312 males
More sampling issues
Only people who were willing to have sex and/or masturbate, and display orgasm in a lab environment.
Filmed more than 10,000 sex cycles.
After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn gay people straight.

73. M & J: Sexual Response Cycle
Initial Excitement
genitals become engorged in blood (men and women)and women will lubricate.
Plateau Phase
excitement peaks, breathing, pulse increases, penis may exhibit seminal fluid, clitoris retracts, orgasm feels imminent.
Orgasm
muscle contractions all over the body, women’s contractions actually help propel sperm and position uterus to increase chances of conception.
Resolution Phase
everything slows down and men enter a refractory period (which can last from minutes to over a day) where he is incapable of another orgasm.

74. Males Females Orgasm Plateau Excitement without orgasm Resolution
with orgasm
without
orgasm

75. Criticisms of M&J’s Sexual Response Cycle
Masters and Johnson did not pay attention to individual differences. In reality people’s sexual responses vary according to factors as age, amount of sexual experience, and cultural background.

76. Forces Affecting Sexual Motivation
Physiological
readiness
Imaginative
stimuli
External
Sexual motivation

77. Only some people are externals when it comes to hunger- but we are all externals when it comes to sex.

78. Sexual drive is related to testosterone level in both men and women, but the relationship is a complex one.
Sexual activity increases testosterone level, and this levels increases sex drive.
Researchers say this has implications for the importance of foreplay

79. Heiman’s 4 Tape Study (External)
Julia Heiman used instruments that detected arousal (changes in penis circumference or in vaginal color) to her sexually experienced university volunteers. Then, the students were told to listen one of four tapes: a sexually explicit erotic tape, a romantic tape, a combined erotic-romantic tape, or a neutral control tape. Both men and women students found the tape of explicit sex most arousing.
People might find this such arousal either pleasing or disturbing. However, it is said that with repeated exposure, the emotional response to any erotic stimulus often "habituates" (lessens).
Another study also showed that sexually explicit material have adverse effects: Depictions of women being sexually coerced-and enjoying it-might lead to false understanding for the viewers that women enjoy rape and tend to increase male viewers' willingness to hurt women.
Images of sexually attractive women and men may also lead people to devalue their own partners and relationships.
After viewing attractive women or men on TV- people judge their own partners as less attractive.

80. Imagined Stimuli
Images inside our heads can also affect our sexual motivation.
Both dreams and daydreams can lead to orgasm.
Wet dreams
But fantasies do not correspond to reality- just because a women fantasizes about a man “taking her” does not mean she will want it in reality
Ally McBeal

81. Sex Differences Based on Survey Responses
Men 
More interested in sex
Want sex with more partners
Desire sex without emotional commitment
Focus on youth and physical attractiveness when choosing a sex partner.
Feel more jealous when partner is physically unfaithful.
Women
Initiate and think about sex more often although less interested in sex
Not interested in sex with many partners
Desire sex with emotional commitment
Focus in social and economic status when choosing a sex partner
Feel more jealous when partner is emotionally unfaithful.

82. Evolutionary Explanations of Sex Differences with Sex
Robert Trivers’s--men and women make different parental investments in order to produce offspring.
From a biological standpoint, men invest no more than the energy required for intercourse.
Women, on the other hand, invest time and energy in pregnancy and breast feeding.
Because of these biological differences, females can produce only a limited umber of offspring, where as males can potentially produce virtually unlimited offspring.
Males can increase their productive success by producing as many offspring as possible
Evolutionary theory predicts that men tend to choose attractive, youthful partners because these qualities imply good health and ability to reproduce.
Women try to select males who have the most access to material resources, because such males can contribute the most to caring for offspring.
Furthermore, men must contend with paternity uncertainty. Evolutionary theorists predict that men would therefore tend to have concerns about their partners’ sexual infidelity.
Women, on the other hand, can be certain that their offspring are their own, though they cannot be certain that their partners will provide for their offspring. Therefore, they are more likely to be concerned about the emotional fidelity of their partners.

83. Criticism of Evolutionary Explanation
Some critics argue that alternative explanations can account equally well for the observed gender differences.
Example: “Women’s history of social and economics subservience may have taught them to place a high value on their partners product of socialization.”

84. Sexual Disorders
Problems that consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning
In Men
premature ejaculation
ejaculation before they or their partners wish
impotence
inability to have or maintain erection
In Women
orgasmic disorder
infrequent or absent orgasms

85. Culture
About ½ of all high school kids in US report having sex- rates are higher in Western Europe but lower in Arab or Asian countries.
Also change over time in the same culture: in % of women reported having sex by 18. Now that number is around half.

86. Sexual Motivation Births to unwed parents Percentage of births
United States
Canada
Japan
Britain
Year
40% 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
Percentage
of births
to unwed
mothers

87. Only about 1/3 of sexually active male teenagers use condoms- WHY?
Ignorance
Guilt about sex
No Communication
Alcohol Use
Mass Media norms of unprotected promiscuity

88. Premarital sexual intercourse rates going down
Premarital sexual intercourse rates going down. Premarital oral sex rates going up. STD’s in teens and young adults going up.

89. Sexually-Transmitted Infections & Diseases
People under the age of 25 account for 2/3 of such infections, and teenage girls seem especially vulnerable because of their less mature bodies and lower levels of protective antibodies.
Homosexual males
Heterosexual females
Heterosexual males
Homosexual females
High intelligence, religiosity, father presence, later onset of puberty, and participation in service learning programs tend to be predictors of teen sexual restraint.

90. Bell Work
Ivan just spent an evening watching pornographic movies of attractive women who actually seemed to enjoy being sexually molested. This experience is most likely to lead him to:
See his own girlfriend as sexually unreceptive
Perceive himself as sexually impotent
Be more willing to hurt women
Feel unsure about his gender identity
View sexual promiscuity as morally wrong.

91. Sexual Orientation
An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender.

92. SOME DEFINITIONS Sex – biologically determined
Gender role stereotypes – Cultural expectations of the behaviors associated with being male or female.
Gender (sex) role socialization – the process of learning the expected behaviors assigned by your culture to your sex.
Adolescent sex roles:
Female:
Search for Mister Right
Being popular and feminine
Being flexible, considerate, taking care of others
Male:
Success at athletics
Enthralled by girls/opposite sex
Avoidance of interest in things defined as feminine

93. Incongruence is a source of external stigmatization
Biological sex – physical and genetic sexual make-up
Gender identity – psychological sense of being male or female
Social sex role – adherence to the cultural expectations for feminine or masculine behavior
Sexual orientation – sexual attraction to members of a particular sex
Incongruence is a source of
internal stress and
external stigmatization

94. Sexual Orientation Heterosexual Homosexual Asexual Bisexual Pansexual
Queer
Transgender

95. Opposite sex attraction
Sexual orientation is not a bi-polar variable:
Storms (1980) conceptualization in Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman, 2001
Homoeroticism
Same sex attraction
High
Homosexuals Bisexuals
Low High
Asexuals Heterosexuals
Low
Opposite sex attraction
Heteroeroticism
Sexual attraction should be conceptualized as a continuum, not a bi-polar (homosexual/heterosexual) variable.

96. How is Sexual Orientation Determined
There has been NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined.
Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay than if they were raised by heterosexual parents.
It is likely biologically determined.

97. The Brain
Simon LeVay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women or homosexual men.

98. Prenatal Environment
Current research seems to point to the hormonal levels in the prenatal environment
Prenatal exposure to androgen/estrogen – rat studies
DES (synthetic estrogen) exposure yielded higher number of lesbian/bisexual daughters
We have created homosexual male fruit flies and lesbian sheep!!
What ethical implications are there?

99. Genetics
If one identical twin is homosexual, the other twin has about a 50% chance of being gay (about 20% for fraternal twins).

100. Environmental Factors
1981 study (Bell, Weinberg, & Hammersmith)
Sexual orientation appears to emerge by the time both males and females reach adolescence
Lesbian and gay people are similar to heterosexual people in the amount of heterosexual childhood experience, but not enjoyed by gays and lesbians.
Gender non-conformity (preference for activities associated with opposite sex) much more common for gays and lesbians during childhood.

101. Women earn 73.3 cents for every $1.00 earned by men.
Year 2000 Mean Earnings of Full-time, Year Round Workers
$61,459
$96,199
$87,394
Doctorate
$71,216
$120,429
$106,206
Prof. Degree
$55,047
$85,287
$72,056
Masters degree
$42,695
$69,427
$58,104
Bachelor degree
$31,682
$46,229
$39,444
Assoc. degree
$24,969
$36,767
$31,912
H.S. grad/GED
$17,129
$24,687
$22,345
Less than 9th
FEMALE
MALE
BOTH
How much education does a woman need to earn as much as a man with a high school diploma?

102. Median Weekly Earnings of Full-time Workers, 2000
Even when men and women do the same job, women typically earn less
Median Weekly Earnings of Full-time Workers, 2000
$281
$313
Farm workers
$401
$506
Bus drivers
$301
$346
Waiters/waitresses
$652
$739
Mail carriers
$589
$637
Social workers
$741
$836
Teachers, secondary school
$782
$890
Registered nurses
$899
$1553
Physicians
$901
$1055
Math/computer science
FEMALE
MALE
OCCUPATION

103. LABELING THEORY
The cultural standard in our society is heterosexuality
Homosexuality was acceptable in ancient Greece, Rome
Biblical prohibition of homosexuality by ancient Jews carried into Christianity
Labeling theory – homosexuality acceptable in some cultures, not others
Labeled as a sin in ours
Label when applied to individuals carries a stigma
Homosexual behavior between consenting adults has no tangible impact on society
Label, not behavior, is the problem

104. What people believe to be true has real consequences,
Matthew Shepard (December 1, October 12, 1998)
During McKinney's pretrial and trial, testimony was given that the pair had pretended to be gay in order to gain Shepard's trust in order to rob him. McKinney's prosecutor argued the murder was premeditated and driven by greed, while McKinney's defense counsel argued that McKinney had only intended to rob Shepard, but had killed him in a rage when Shepard made a sexual advance.
, pistol-whip, and torture Shepard, tie him to a fence, and leave him to die. Media reports often contained the graphic account of the pistol-whipping and his fractured skull. It was reported that Shepard was beaten so brutally that his face was completely covered in blood, except where it had been partially washed clean by his tears.[10][11] Both of their girlfriends testified that neither McKinney nor Henderson was under the influence of drugs or alcohol at the time
Few states protect homosexuals from discrimination’
Eviction
Job security
Homosexual activity even between consenting adults in private is illegal in many states
Homosexuals denied the protection of marriage - denial of health insurance, joint tax returns, inheritance

105. The personality pie (Adapted from Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman, 2001)
Homophobic perception of homosexuality
Realistic perception of sexual orientation
Spiritual interests
Work life
Sexual
orientation
Strengths
Homosexual
(master status)
Weaknesses
Family life
Special interests
Values and morals
All other aspects of the individual disappear
Sexual orientation is one of many parts of an individual’s life

106. Numbers of lesbian and gay people:
Kinsey found that 10% of adult men were exclusively homosexual for a three year period between ages 16 and 55.
Also found that 1/3 of men had homosexual experiences leading to orgasm during their adolescent or adult lives
Only 4% were homosexual throughout their lives
For women Kinsey found 19% had homosexual experiences by the age of 40. Only 2-3% were homosexual throughout their lives.
More recent research yields estimates ranging from 7-10%

107. “COMING OUT” Recognizing, accepting, and identifying one’s self publicly as homosexual
Coming out is an individual process with many variations
Common stages:
Thinking about oneself as lesbian/gay (signification)
Getting to know others in the gay/lesbian community
Sharing identity with family and friends
Publicly acknowledging identity

108. Achievement Motivation
A desire for significant accomplishments; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard.

109. Bean bag throwing

110. Achievement Motivation
People with HIGH achievement motivation prefer moderately difficult tasks.
People who have LOW achievement motivation prefer very easy or very difficult tasks.
Success is attainable yet attributable to their skill and effort—they are personally responsible for the outcome
Prefer tasks where feedback on their performance is available
Failure is unlikely or not embarrassing

111. Why are some people highly motivated, while others are not?
There are emotional and cognitive roots.
Children learn to associate achievement with positive emotions.
Children learn to associate achievement with expectations (intrinsic or extrinsic).
These structures are usually set in place by parents and teachers.
This is a strong argument for what playing a part in achievement motivation?

112. Nurture

113. Which are you motivated by
Which are you motivated by? Give an example from your life that shows this.

114. Bell Work
Which of the following is most clearly not an example of an incentive?
Social disapproval
The smell of rotten eggs
Low blood glucose level
A pornographic movie
A day of vacation

115. Incentive: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

116. Cultivating Intrinsic Motivation

117. Does high achievement motivation mean success in life?

118. When Motives Conflict (Kurt Lewin) approach-approach conflict
You like all of the options
avoidance-avoidance conflict
Lesser of two evils
approach-avoidance conflict
One choice has pros/cons
Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts
Multiple choices with pros/cons

119. Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Goal Setting Theory
A subfield in psychology that focuses on how to help organizations recruit, select, compensate and train employees.
The object is to utilize the human factor in an organization to increase productivity.

120. Leadership Style
Task Leadership: goal oriented leadership that sets standards and organizes work.
Social Leadership: group oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict and offers support .

121. Leadership Perspectives: Theory X
Assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money.
Only interested in Maslow’s lower needs
Must never be trusted and always be watched.
To work more, they must be given money.

122. Leadership Perspective: Theory Y
Assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-actualization and to demonstrate their competence and creativity.
Interested in Maslow’s higher needs

123. Need for Power Readiness or preference for having an impact on people
People with a high need for power are interested in controlling situations and controlling others

124. Need for Power
Sex differences: Largest is that men but not women with high need for power perform a variety of impulsive and aggressive behaviors
Profligate impulsive behaviors (drinking, aggression, sexual exploitation) is less likely to occur if a person has responsibility training

125. Emotion
Willam James and Carl Lange came up with the James-Lange Theory of Emotion.
We feel emotion because of biological changes caused by stress.
The body changes and our mind recognizes the feeling.

126. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
James-Lange theory is full of crap.
How can that be true if similar physiological changes correspond with drastically different emotional states?
The physiological change and cognitive awareness must occur simultaneously.
They believed it was the thalamus that helped this happen.

127. Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Stanley Schachter explains emotions more completely than the other two theories.
They happen at the same time but…
People who are already physiologically aroused experience more intense emotions than unaroused people when both groups are exposed to the same stimuli.
Biology and Cognition interact with each other to increase the experience.

128. Stress Social readjustment rating scale (SRRS)
Life Changing Units (LCUs)- marriage, change job, etc…
The more LCUs you have the higher your score is on the SRRS.
Those who score higher are more likely to have stress related disease.

129. Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome—Rat study
Describes our response to a stressful event.
Three stages
Alarm
Your body prepares for stress
Breathing, heart rate, blood pressure increase and muscles tighten
Fight or flight
Resistance
Continued exposure to stressor results in body adapting (This is my life now… welp.)
Exhaustion
If your body is in a constant state of stress, it will take a physical toll on your body (think about effects of elevated heart rate and blood pressure), including death

130. FRQ
Your high school is proposing moving to a system in which grades are no longer given or used to evaluate student progress. Define each of the following concepts and state how each might either positively or negatively change student behavior under such a system.
Extrinsic motivation
Arousal theory (Yerkes-Dodson Law)
Learned helplessness
Self-fulfilling prophecy

132. Optimum Arousal Sometimes we do not seek homeostasis.
Sometimes we seek arousal.
Our needs go beyond reducing drives.