1. DEVELOPMENT OF CALL

2. History of CALL – 3 Phases
CALL has developed gradually over the past thirty years and can be categorised into three phases:
Behavioristic CALL
Communicative CALL
Integrative CALL
By Mark Warschauer

3. Behavioristic CALL
It is based on the behaviourist/structural theories of learning (conceived in the 50’s and implemented in the 1960’s).
Learning is broken into chunks and the learner is drilled to mastery before moving on to the next level
In their original design (programmed instruction), programs entailed repetitive (mindless) drills, commonly referred to as drill and practice (drill and kill)
The continued drilling would often kill any enthusiasm for learning

4. Behavioristic CALL
The theoretical basis of Programmed Instruction was provided by Skinner:
Operant conditioning
There were objections to Skinner’s operant conditioning
Objection arose from the developments in thinking on the nature of language learning which rejected Skinner’s behaviouristic model with its roots in animal behaviour. The impetus to this fundamental change came from the work of Chomsky, in particular his review (1975) of Skinner’s Verbal Behaviour.
Another critique on behaviouristic CALL contends that all CALL courseware and activities should build on intrinsic motivation and should foster interactivity – both learner-computer and learner-learner (Stevens, 1989)

5. Behavioristic CALL
But the rationale behind these programs has been not rejected completely due to a number of advantages
Repetition is beneficial and even essential to learning (computer is an ideal tool).
Immediate non-judgmental feedback.
Students can work at their own pace and acquire these skills outside class to free up class time for communicative activities.
Efficient record keeping.
Motivation.

6. Behavioristic CALL Example of Behavioristic CALL:
Plato :
Randal’s Listening Lab
Late 70’s and early 80s behavioristic CALL was undermined by:
Behavioristic approaches has been rejected theoretically and pedagogically
Introduction of microcomputers accorded more possibilities

7. Communicative CALL
Communicative CALL is based on the communicative approach to teaching which became prominent in the 1970’s and 1980’s.
It focuses more on using forms (content) rather than on the forms themselves.
It teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly.
It allows and encourages students to generate utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language.
It does not judge and evaluate everything nor reward them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells.
It is flexible to a variety of student responses.
It will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well.

8. Three roles of the computer in Communicative CALL:
The Computer as a Tutor
As a teacher
The Computer as Stimulus
To stimulate discussion, critical thinking etc
The Computer as Tool
Tool to use and understand language

9. The computer is the “knower-of-the-right” answer
Communicative CALL
The computer as a TUTOR
Skill practice, but also in non-drill format: paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games
The computer is the “knower-of-the-right” answer
As opposed to drill and practice, the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction (the rationale reflects explicit learning approaches i.e. cognitive method)

10. Communicative CALL The computer as a TUTOR - Advantages Advantages
Interaction
Active participation in the learning process
Exercises are beyond multiple-choice and fill-in questions.
Efficiency
Review
Address individual skill deficiencies
Individualisation
Branching programs
ITS’s which are based on AI techniques (Expert Module, Teaching Module, Student Model)
Motivation
Some of the research suggests that quality Tutor programs (use of graphics and sound) can hold students’ attention much longer than traditional methods. (Simonson and Thompson, 1997: 96)

11. Communicative CALL The computer as a TUTOR – Examples Grammar
drill and practice on a single topic (irregular verbs, etc.)
drills on variety of topics (French Grammar Computerised, etc.
games (Spanish now, etc.)
Intelligent Language Tutoring Systems-grammar units included in comprehensive multimedia packages (Spanish Now)
Listening and Speaking
the former programs are specifically designed to promote second language listening multimedia programs (Rosetta Stone, etc.)
the latter programs generally allow students to record and playback their own voice and compare it to a model (Pronunciation Tutor, VisiPitch, etc.)
linguistics applications, for example, teaching the IPA, sound analysis (Signalyze, etc.)

12. Communicative CALL Reading or Text Reconstruction
These programs allow students to manipulate letters, words, sentences, or paragraphs in order to put texts together (Spanish Now, Storyboard, etc.)
Vocabulary
Includes drill and practice programs, multimedia tutorials, and games (La Casa, Treefrog, etc.)

13. Communicative CALL The computer as STIMULUS
The purpose of the computer is not so much to have students discover the right answer, but rather to stimulate students’ discussion, writing, or critical thinking
A simulation is a representation or model of an event, an object, or a phenomenon
Where the World is Carmen Sandiego, A La Rencontre de Philippe, etc.
Generally a simplified model that contains the essential elements of the thing simulated
Example : Sim City, Sleuth
Problem solving software
Similar to simulation software in that students are placed in situations where they can manipulate variables and then receive feedback on the results of these manipulations
Simulations, however, are attempts to model real-life situations and objects, whereas problem-solving is a more general category that includes all software designed for teaching problem-solving skills (i.e. adventure games: Myst, etc.)

14. Communicative CALL The computer as STIMULUS – Advantages
They give the student the power to manipulate various aspects of the model.
Simulations give students an opportunity to apply their learning to a “real-life” situation, these programs tend to address higher-order educational objectives.
Students become an active part of the educational environment (decision makers) and can usually see the immediate results of the decisions they make in the environment.
Usually, a simulation will require the students to perform application-, analysis-, and synthesis-level activities.

15. Communicative CALL The computer as a TOOL (a “workhorse”)
The programs do not necessarily provide any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or understand language.
Word Processors, Spreadsheets, Graphic Programs
WordPerfect, Microsoft Word, Simple Text, BBedit, Excel, Corel Draw, etc.
Spelling and Grammar Checkers
Hugo, Bilingual Writing Centre, etc.
Desktop Publishing Program
PageMaker, etc.
Reference
Dictionaries and encyclopedias i.e. Le Petit Robert, Encarta.

16. Communicative CALL Electronic Grade Books Concordancers
They search through large files of texts -corpora- in order to find all the uses of a particular word or collocation i.e. Oxford’s MicroConcord with a total 1,000,000 words
Collaborative Writing
A number of tools assist students to work on their writing collaboratively on computers linked in a local area network (LAN) i.e. Aspects, Daedalus, MacCollaborator
Authoring
Allows teachers to tailor software programs either by inserting new text or by modifying the activities. Authoring runs on a spectrum from set programs which allow slight modification to programs where the designer has more control with respect to GUI, exercise types, etc.
Dasher, HyperCard, SuperCard, Toolbook, Micromedia Director

17. Communicative CALL The Computer as a TOOL - ADVANTAGES
Teaches students to manage information
Tool software is cost-effective
(wide application of a word processing program)
Students learn how to use tool software
Emphasises active student involvement (user manipulate information and are controlling the computers as opposed to just being put through their paces)

18. Communicative CALL
Communicative CALL seems like a significant advance over its predecessor, however, critiques pointed out that:
The computer was being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion.
Due to the broader reassessments of the communicative approach to language teaching scholars were no longer satisfied with teaching compartmentalised skills or structures (even if taught in communicative manner).
Educators were seeking ways to teach in a more integrative manner.

19. Steps Toward Integrative CALL
Integrative approaches to CALL are based on two important technological developments of the last decade.
Multimedia
Electronic communication

20. Integrative CALL Multimedia
CD-ROM which allows a variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) to be accessed on a single machine.
Multimedia entails hypermedia.
Multimedia resources are linked together and learners can navigate their own paths simply by pointing and clicking a mouse.

21. Integrative CALL
Multimedia and Hypermedia in Language Learning – Advantages
More authentic learning environments – listening is combined with seeing.
Students have great control over learning – not only at their own pace, but also on their own individual path.
Skills are integrated.
Reading + Writing + Speaking + Listening
It facilitates a principle focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies.

22. Integrative CALL
Multimedia and Hypermedia in Language Learning -DISADVANTAGES
Quality of available programs
The field is predominantly left to commercial developers who often fail to base their programs on sound pedagogical principles.
Computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive
They cannot understand a user’s spoken input nor evaluate the appropriateness of an utterance (even the mere correctness presents problems at a more advanced level).
It seldom involves a more important type of integration
Integrating meaningful and authentic communication into all aspects of the language learning curriculum.
While Intelligent CALL (Underwood, 1989) may be the next and ultimate usage of computers for language learning, that phase is clearly a long way down the road.

23. Integrative CALL Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)
Asynchronous (Not Simultaneous)
Synchronous (Simultaneous)
Writing environment Aspects
MUD’s (multi-user domains)
MOO’s (the above + object-oriented)
schMOOze University

24. Integrative CALL Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)
CMC allows users to share not only brief but also lengthy documents, graphics, sounds, and video.
It facilitates collaborative writing.
Using the WWW, students can search endlessly through files around the world to locate and access authentic materials exactly tailored to their own personal interests. For example: newspapers, magazine articles, radio broadcasts, short videos, movie reviews, book excerpts, even karaoke!
Students can use the Web to publish their texts or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the general public.
While the WWW to date is still predominantly a text-based medium, this will undoubtedly change in the near future; not only due to the transmission of audio-visual material (video clips, sound files), but also due to the growing use of the WWW to carry out real-time audio and audio-visual chatting.