1. MODULE 7: ASSESSING THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

2. Introduction
This module is designed to introduce you to assessing the state of the environment as a first step in IEA. It helps you to:
Understand the importance of reporting on environmental trends and conditions within an integrated system of environmental analysis
Learn a strategy for selecting the most important points in assessing the state of the environment
Learn about data and indicators and their importance in linking environmental assessment to policy formulation
Learn about the value of remote sensing and GIS in SOE analysis

3. The place of SOE reporting in IEA
Assesses “what is happening to the environment”
Very useful as a starting point to give the basic environmental information on “the state” and “pressures”

4. Important points in assessing “What is happening”
Strategy may differ but the following points are important:
Extent of area:
data requirements differ with scale. Global data not sufficient for sub-national level comparisons
Too much detail may blur trends
How area is demarcated. May be based on:
An ecosystem – more natural and would have more meaningful averages
Political boundaries – more common because they already exist as boundaries. Many policies are based on political jurisdictions.

5. Important points… (cont’d)
The most important environmental trends and conditions: identifying them at this stage makes it easier to link human activity to the environment.
The forces for environmental change: pressures that influence trends, e.g. demographics, production, consumption, etc.
Helpful to understand the state of the environment
Note indirect forces, e.g. trade

6. Data and indicators
Appropriate good quality data useful in environmental assessment
Data quality and availability are two of the most important problems in environmental assessment in Africa
Data from various sources, some of which may require special skills to use, e.g. remotely sensed data
Data processed to obtain indicators to improve communication between scientists, decision-makers and the public
Comparison of indicators over time will show if the environment is improving or deteriorating 

7. The AEO/GEO environmental assessment Pyramid
IEA
harmonized
processes
nested products
global/regional/thematic
Underpinned by sound data and science

8. Data and indicators are useful in:
Formulating policy and monitoring progress towards sustainable development
Providing feedback on system behaviour and policy performance
Improving chances of successful adaptation
Improving coordination and ensuring movement towards common goals
Improving implementation
Increasing accountability 

9. Information pyramid
Indices
Indicators
Statistics
Raw data

10. Data and decision-making

11. Collection of data for an SOE
For IEA, the range of variables required from various Departments, institutions, etc., will be many
Range of data and variables determined by the issues in the SOE report
Availability of data may limit issues on which analysis may be made but may also reveal where gaps are
Manage the data for an SOE report in step with the report development process, going on to types and sources as they become needed

12. Remotely sensed data
Very useful where areas are inaccessible or where the cost of collecting spatial data over extensive areas is prohibitive
Provide good “pictures” for convincing the public of the value of participating in environmental assessment
Provide data over large areas that have standard format
Are available on a repetitive basis and have been used to provide data for areas over a long time basis
May be used to monitor the progress of environmental projects 

13. Data quality
Data quality and availability are two of the most important problems in environmental assessment in Africa:
debates based on poor quality data complicate the decision making process
using poor quality data may probably be more dangerous than having no data
it might build false confidences in environmental analysts and decision makers which could lead to making the wrong decisions

14. Assessing data quality
Relevance
Timeliness
Accessibility
Clarity
Metadata
Accuracy
Completeness
Comparability
Methodological soundness
Efficiency
Coherence

15. Collection of data for an IEA report
Data and variables required from various departments, institutions, etc., will be many:
Range of data and variables determined by the priority issues in the IEA report
Availability of data may limit issues on which analysis may be made but may also reveal where gaps are
Manage the data for an IEA report in step with the report development process, going on to types and sources as they become needed
Data should be collected and processed with a clear decision making process in mind rather than as an end in itself

16. Data collection and acquisition

17. Indicators
Are measurable properties of the environment, defined in a time, space and policy context
Their purpose in IEA reporting – to provide a detailed assessment of the environment, backed by reliable data (raw or manipulated)
Indicators give statistical, scientific and technical information to the population as a whole and to certain social sectors about public policy objectives and goals

18. Indicators (cont’d)
Environmental indicators represent a powerful tool for communicating synoptic information
Indicators represent a bridge between the wealth of detail and the need for interpreted information focusing on the interactions and changes in the environment.

19. Indicators (cont’d)
Data collected over time can be aggregated into indicators, which can further be aggregated into indices.
In IEA reporting, it is important to stress the need for policy-relevant indicators based on solid scientific understanding
In order to be useful, the set of key indicators for IEA reporting must be minimal, so that if properly monitored, will provide rigorous data describing major trends and impacts on ecosystems

20. Criteria for selecting environmental indicators
Policy relevance/usefulness to the user:
Provide a representative picture of environmental conditions, of the pressure on the environment and society’s response.
Have an easy to understand presentation and show long-term trends.
Be sensitive to changes in the environment and related human activities.
Provide a basis for international comparisons.
Be applicable to national and/or nationally important regional environmental material.
Correctly reflect public policy priorities.

21. Criteria... (cont’d) Analytical consistency
Have scientific and technical foundations.
Be based or founded on international models and on an international consensus about their validity.
Measurement
Be or become available on a reasonable cost/benefit basis.
Be appropriately documented and of recognized quality.
Be periodically updated following appropriate procedures.

22. Criteria... (cont’d) Easy to understand Reliable
Allow all users to have similar interpretations and perceptions.
Be transparent, that is, be easy to understand by users with different levels of comprehension and information.
Reliable
Be technically/scientifically credible.
Be created by institutions with recognized capacity and technical reliability.

23. Criteria... (cont’d) Transversal/Universal Available
May be used to learn about trends of different phenomena and, at the same time, allow comparisons to be made between different local situations.
Available
Be or become available and, preferably, present historical territorial analyses that help to understand how phenomena behave over time.

24. Indicators should...
Be developed within an accepted conceptual framework
Be clearly defined and easy to understand
Be subject to aggregation
Be objective
Have reasonable data requirements
Be relevant to users
Be limited in number
Reflect causes, processes or results

25. Characteristics of DPSIR indicators
Pressure/Driver indicators
Describe what caused the problems on which the government and society must act to preserve and improve the environment.
State indicators
Describe the conditions and quality of the environment. Show how human pressure in development affects environmental quality and the quantity of available resources. These indicators are used to formulate public policy on the problems detected.

26. Characteristics... (cont’d)
Impact indicators
Designed to uncover how the state of the environment affects different human interests, such as quality of life, urban economy, ecosystems, urban vulnerability as well as its impact on the political-institutional level.
Response indicators
Allows an assessment to be made of the improvement, protective, limitation and regulatory measures taken by the local government, civil society bodies, and enterprises or by individuals, to deal with environmental problems, particularly those relating to human pressure on environmental resources.

27. Characteristics of "Opportunities " indicators
Should reveal what opportunities are available of the environment resource
Should be more positive and look for a threshold beyond which it will start “healing” itself
How they can be used to achieve sustainable development

28. Examples of indicators
Issue
Indicators
Pressure
State
Response
Climate Change
-Fossil fuel consumption
-Greenhouse gas emissions
-Mean global temp
-Ambient levels of CO2
-Change in energy use
Water quality / eutrophication
-Nitrogen and phosphorous emissions
-Wastewater discharges
-Livestock density
-BOD; dissolved oxygen; nitrogen and phosphorous levels in ambient water
-Population served by treated water supply
-User charges for wastewater treatment
Urban environmental quality
-Air pollution emissions
-Traffic density
-Rural-urban migration
-Urban air quality
-Ground level ozone concentration
-Pollution abatement expenditures

29. Indicator example

30. Process of developing indicators
Develop a shopping list of indicators
Consult stakeholders and fine-tune the indicators list using agreed criteria
Define the indicators so that their use is consistent across sectors, countries, etc.
Test the suitability of the indicators by populating them with data, and creating necessary databases
Finalize the indicator list
Make the indicator database available for use in IEA reporting

31. Participatory indicator development

32. Participatory… (cont’d)
Recognize already developed and Internationally recognized indicators while developing new ones
Different people living and working in different environments have different values and these must be reflected in the development of indicators
Professionals and researchers should learn to solve environmental problems together from multiple perspectives
Ensures that local skills and knowledge are considered in the development of environmental indicators that the local communities can use and maintain
Allow for comparisons of scientifically based and indigenous knowledge-based indicators

33. Using indicators for IEA reporting
Multiple pressures impact on the environment at the same time and those that are introduced as new are part of the set with the old ones.

34. Examples of Remotely Sensed data
Monitoring vegetation degradation in Mau Forest on the Mau escarpment, Kenya
1986 (top), 2001 (bottom)
Threat to the further deterioration through logging in the forest in 2001 was exposed by using remotely sensed images.

35. Examples of Remotely Sensed… (cont’d)
Proving the success of the “response” to deforestation in the Kimulot Division of Mau Forest, Kenya
Proof of the success of a reforestation project in the Division was useful to secure further funding. It was acquired using remotely sensed data

36. Examples of Remotely Sensed… (cont’d)
Analysis of Midrand’s state of environment, South Africa
1985 (top), 2001 (bottom)
Rapid growth of an urban area between Pretoria and Johannesburg has had major impacts on its surroundings. Satellite images have been used to show that effective environmental strategies are required to avoid further significant deterioration

37. Examples of Remotely Sensed… (cont’d)
Monitoring urban growth, Banjul, The Gambia.
1973 (top), 2001 (bottom)
Rapid urban growth on the peninsula of Banjul has had major impacts on the environment. Only the mangrove swamps are now remaining.

38. Examples of Remotely Sensed… (cont’d)
Protection of important tourist spots, Lake Nakuru, Kenya
1973 (top), 2001 (bottom)
Lake Nakuru is famous throughout the world for its unique concentration of flamingos. Data to prove the extent of deterioration around the Lake was acquired using remotely sensed data

39. The Internet
 Major source of environmental data from many institutions and UN agencies, country data, etc.
Internet mapping used by UNEP to communicate images, maps, and data sets to potential users.

40. Developing indicators: some important points to note
Indicators should be developed:
Within the limitations of available data
Within the demand desires for information of decision-makers
To answer questions on key policy priorities
Indicators are powerful tools for creating change because:
They are directly linked to to assessment and evaluation
They strengthen environmental accountability

41. Developing indicators… (cont’d)
A criteria, with internal quality controls, within which indicators are developed should be developed so that their selection is not haphazard.
Indicators developed should reflect aspects of the system that are meaningful and will influence the issue of interest.

42. Some environmental indicators suggested for AEO-2
Issue
Indicators
Pressure
State/Condition
Response
Climate change
• Fossil fuel
• Greenhouse
gas emissions
• Mean global temperature
• Ambient levels of CO 2
or other greenhouse
• Change in energy use
Water quality/
eutrophication 2:25
• Nitrogen and
phosphours
emissions
• Wastewater
discharges
• Livestock density
• Biological oxygen demand;
dissolved oxygen; nitrogen
and phosphorus levels in
water
• Population served by
treated water supply
• User charges for
waste water treatment
Urban environmental quality
• Air pollutant
• Traffic density
• Rural-urban
migration
• Urban air quality
• Ground-level ozone
concentrations
• Pollution abatement
charges

43. Participatory indicator development
People in different areas differ in their value and perception of the environment
Complicated indicators may be simplified by requesting local people to work together with scientists
Very effective where indigenous peoples are requested to contribute because indigenous knowledge:
Will be more relevant to local environmental issues; some indicators from scientists may be rejected
Will give easier to use and better locally-understood descriptions of indicators
Will show that integrating indigenous knowledge with scientific knowledge in indicator development should be sought wherever appropriate

44. An example of a framework for participatory indicator development

45. An illustration of how to link Pressure/State indicators with response

46. A hierarchy: from Data to indicators to indices
Composite indices, e.g. HDI, GNP
Indicators: to assess the performance of environmental systems. Unique for each application.
Integrated databases
Disaggregated data and statistics: collected from the field

47. Presentation of spatial data and indicators with GIS
 GIS helps:
To turn environmental data into spatial information
To use indicators to reveal anomalies in the average distribution of pressures, the state of the environment, or policy performance.
To provide information to influence the formulation or modification of policy
The scientist to communicate spatial information with the public and with the decision-makers.