1. The Scientific Revolution in Europe

2. The Great Chain of Being
1579 original drawing on the left. The Great Chain of Being: a powerful visual metaphor for a divinely inspired universal hierarchy ranking all forms of higher and lower life; humans are represented by the male alone.   From Didacus Valades, Rhetorica Christiana (1579).

3. Before the Scientific Revolution
Knowledge based on belief, superstition
Challenge to Church = heresy
Belief in the Great Chain of Being
How would this impact people trying to learn new things?
“Racial” implications of the Great Chain of Being (1868, Ernst Haeckel’s Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte)

4. Scientific Revolution (Natural Philosophy)
Basing ideas on reason, not belief
Reason: Using logic and observation to figure something out
Why do pit bulls have such a bad reputation?
Because they are mean dogs and they are owned by people who care more about their dogs than other people.
Logic? Observation? What would this look like when applied to the pit bull question?

5. Impetus for the Scientific Revolution
Medieval Universities
Muslim science (Arabic and Persian math)
Ancient texts translated into Arabic then Latin
Math, astronomy, physics new fields
Renaissance
Patrons
Artists
Realism, use of science, geometry, natural world
Printing press
Age of Exploration
Navigational tools
Better instruments=more accurate observations and new knowledge
Other “science”
Alchemy
Magic
Astrology

6. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
1543 “On the Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies”
Posits a Heliocentric universe
Kept it to himself (Why?)
Polish cleric, moves to Italy
Church insists that earth is center of universe
Copernicus knew sun was, but kept it to himself until the year of his death
Maintained the divine circular theory

7. Aristotelian View of the Universe

8. Ptolomy’s vs. Copernicus’ Universe
Ptolomeic universe: earth is unmoving center of the universe
Catholic, middle ages and Renaissance belief: Earth, moon, planets, stars, sun, God. Each sphere more perfect than the previous
Why did they believe this?
It matched their experience, their observations and their common sense
Handed down from the ancients
Fit their Biblical Christian world view.
This was deductive reasoning. Assume a fact then extrapolate from it.
Vs. inductive reasoning. Look at a bunch of evidence, and then make a theory from it.
Exceptions or contradictions to the Ptolomeic universe were explained as loops within the spheres. The alternative was to throw out the whole theory, to dismantle the universe!
Copernicus: heliocentric

9. Kepler (1571-1630) German Protestant Not bound by Catholic Church
Pursues math behind Copernicus and takes up Galileo’s work
Elliptical orbits
Speed of planets not uniform
Distance from sun dictates duration of orbit
German Astonomer, Kepler, not bound by the Church (he was a protestant); makes the math of Copernicus work and takes up Galileo’s work. Eliptical orbits.
Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, all used inductive methods, made no a priori assumption. Collected facts, observations from nature, theory made, math tested, theory revised. Scientific method pioneered.

10. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) “Eppur si muove.”
Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher
Use of repeated experiments to learn about gravity, inertia
“Father of modern observational astronomy” via use of telescope
1614 open letter asserts Bible’s irrelevance for scientific knowledge
Dialogue (Copernicus vs. Ptolomy)
House arrest, book burned
“It still moves.”
Planets, sun, moon, etc. are irregular, not perfect spheres. Lots more out there they didn’ t know about. Messy, more complicated…closer to god is not necessarily more perfect.
1614: open letter asserts bible’s irrelevance for scientific knowledge; should be reinterpreted in light of new discoveries.
attacked by Bellarmine, head Jesuit, told him to shut up.
Dialogue: Copernicus and Ptolomy’s opinions (saves him from being accused of his own radical ideas)
Forced to life in prison (house arrest), had to abjure his book, which was publically burned, and his sentence
“It still moves” he is said to have said after his sentence.

11. Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Father of the Scientific Method
No a priori assumptions: “If a man will begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts, but if he will be content to begin with doubts, he shall end in certainties.”
Primacy of empirical observations
Develop a theory
Express it in mathematics
Experimentation (test the theory)
Inductive reasoning: Look at lots of evidence and from these, infer a general principle.
“All bachelors are unmarried.”
“All bachelors are happy.”
Which of the above is a priori knowledge? Why?
Sir Francis Bacon: English Lawyer
A priori vs a posteriori “from the earlier” vs. “from the later)
A priori means it is known; no experimentation needed
“God willed it” is no longer enough. The Great Chain of Being is crumbling.
Armed with this new method, 17th century made huge advances in many fields of knowledge.

12. Sir Isaac Newton ( )
Inspired by works of Galileo: posited idea of gravity
Three laws of motion come from the original idea of gravity
Developed calculus: to demonstrate how motion works
Published his work, Principia, 1687
New world view: God’s universe runs according to natural, discoverable laws
Deism (God the great watchmaker)
“Fall of the every sparrow”
Armed with this new method, 17th century made huge advances in many fields of knowledge.
which re-explains the universe to everyone’s satisfaction.
New world view: God’s universe runs according to natural laws: unchanging, natural, discoverable. Humans can discover nature’s laws, and find nature’s solutions. Prayers and rituals are no longer your only recourse. God no longer necessary to explain everyday life.
God may not be concerned with “the fall of every sparrow”; new metaphor
God as great watchmaker (deism)

13. Scientific Revolution beyond science…
Why can’t other fields be challenged?
Philosophy: Descartes
“Hyperbolic doubt”: there are no certainties, other than Cogito ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am.” )
Truth built back up from the fundamental existence of the thinking self (“I”)
deductive reasoning: start with a basic principle and from there move to specific truths
Cartesian Dualism: matter vs. mind
His basic strategy was to consider false any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt.
Cartesian dualism: matter (physical) and mind (spiritual)

14. Medicine Paracelsus (Swiss) Chemical, not humoral, imbalance
Early pharmacologist
Vesalius (Flemish)
Anatomy: knowledge through experimentation, dissection
On the Structure of the Human Body
Harvey (English)
Blood circulation
Heart functionality

15. Politics: What justifies the authority of the state?
Thomas Hobbes (English)
Leviathan, 1651
Scientific, not divine rationale for monarch
Man brutish, warlike in state of nature
“Social contract” formed with a strongman to maintain order, civilized society
Power can be revoked
Should a bad king be allowed to rule? Challenges to absolutism
Hobbes considers himself a scientist, therefore rejects justications from bible, greeks, etc. looking at evidence around him instead. Saw men in a state of nature as chaotic, warlike, fighting for power. Only alternative is for people to form a contract with a strongman to give them power, absolute rule , over their lives, which is better than the state of nature. Still justifies monarchy, but not based on divine power.

16. Politics: What justifies the authority of the state?
John Locke (English)
“Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1690)
Tabula rasa (blank slate)
Environment influential (nature vs. nurture)
humans naturally rational, not depraved
Two contracts: first together to form a society; next with a ruler to protect their property
Tolerance most rational position to take
Influence on colonialists
John Locke: English
Great philosopher behind the Declaration of Independence
Worked for a lot of politicians, knew real experience
Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690
Didn’t believe in natural depravity, sin, of man. Tabula Rasa, men are born as blank slates. Environment more important than anything. Also that humans are naturally rational. Left alone, they’ll move toward a government.
Two contracts: First with each other to form a society
Second with a ruler; people contract with a government in order to protect their property, but if it fails, they then have the right to overthrow, depose it.