1. Western Europe and Political Democracy
Growing prosperity after 1850 contributed to the expansion of democracy in Western Europe.
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2. Western Europe and Political Democracy (cont.)
In the late 1800s, political democracy was spreading in Western Europe, as universal male suffrage laws were passed, political parties formed, and ministerial responsibility became the dominant political entity.
Europe, 1871
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3. Western Europe and Political Democracy (cont.)
Great Britain:
A two-party parliamentary system emerged as the Liberal and Conservative parties vied for political power.
The Liberals voted for social reforms, such as unemployment benefits and pensions.
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4. Western Europe and Political Democracy (cont.)
France:
In 1875 the Third Republic in France gained a republican constitution.
The new government was established with a president and a legislature made up of two houses.
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5. Western Europe and Political Democracy (cont.)
Italy:
Italy had emerged by 1870 as a united national state, but the disparity of wealth and widespread government corruption led to a weak, centralized political system.
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6. Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order
Although Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later Russia instituted elections and parliaments, real power remained in the hands of emperors and elites.
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7. Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order (cont.)
In Germany, the government established by Otto von Bismarck set up a two-house legislature.
Although the Reichstag was elected by male voters, the emperor still maintained political power by controlling the military and foreign policy.
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8. Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order (cont.)
By the reign of William II (1888 to 1918), Germany was the strongest military and industrial power in Europe. Conservative forces thwarted the rise of democracy in Germany.
In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the emperor Francis Joseph largely ignored the Austrian parliament and governed by imperial decree. Ethnic problems threatened the stability of Austria.
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9. Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order (cont.)
In Hungary, the parliamentary system worked, although it was dominated by the nation’s landholding class.
Nicholas II became the czar of Russia in 1894, and was committed to autocratic rule of the large nation.
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10. Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order (cont.)
Russia was becoming an industrialized nation, and the rising working class demanded more political power. In 1905 the bloody breakup of a peaceful demonstration in St. Petersburg left hundreds dead.
Czar Nicholas relented and permitted the establishment of the Duma, although he had limited the power of the legislative body by 1907.
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11. The United States
In the United States, the Second Industrial Revolution produced wealth that was more concentrated than it was in Europe.
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12. The United States (cont.)
In the United States, the Civil War had destroyed the Southern way of life, and new amendments to the U.S. Constitution protected the civil liberties of African Americans.
Between 1860 and 1914, the United States switched from a farm-based economy to an industrial economy.
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13. The United States (cont.)
The populations of urban centers soared, and by 1900, three American cities had over 1 million inhabitants.
Around the turn of the century, America became imperialistic and acquired territories abroad.
American forces deposed Queen Liliuokalani in Hawaii and acquired territories from the vanquished Spanish in the Spanish-American War.
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14. International Rivalries
The German emperor pursued aggressive foreign policies that divided Europe into two hostile alliance systems.
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15. International Rivalries (cont.)
To prevent France from limiting its power, Germany entered into a defensive alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy by This coalition was known as the Triple Alliance.
In 1890 Emperor William II fired Bismarck and took control of Germany’s foreign policy. In 1894 William II ended the treaty Germany had with Russia.
By 1907, France, Great Britain, and Russia had drawn into an alliance known as the Triple Entente.
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16. International Rivalries (cont.)
The two opposing alliances of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente had become more divided and less willing to compromise at the beginning of the twentieth century.
As the Ottoman Empire began to lose power, the provinces of Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro in the Balkans began to gain their freedom. Austria and Russia vied for influence in the region.
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17. International Rivalries (cont.)
In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed the Slavic territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This outraged Serbia, which wanted to establish a Slavic kingdom.
Serbia and its ally Russia prepared for war against Austria-Hungary. Germany demanded that Russia accept the Austrian annexation or face war; Russia, weakened by war with Japan, backed down.
By the beginning of 1914, the crisis in the Balkans threatened the security of Europe.
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18. The Culture of Modernity
Dramatic innovation occurred in literature, the visual arts, and music in the late 1800s.
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19. The Culture of Modernity (cont.)
Between 1870 and 1914, many writers and artists produced works known as modernism.
The naturalist writers addressed social problems such as alcoholism, women in society, and urban slums.
Symbolist writers produced work that functioned for its own sake, and did not attempt to criticize or understand society.
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20. The Culture of Modernity (cont.)
In France, artists such as Claude Monet embraced a painting style known as impressionism. Impressionists rejected indoor studios and went into nature, where they captured the interplay of light, sky, and water.
Vincent van Gogh and Paul Cezanne used color and structure to express mood in a form known as postimpressionism. These artists wanted to represent reality, not mirror it, as did the camera, which had been invented in 1888.
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21. The Culture of Modernity (cont.)
The Spaniard Pablo Picasso painted in a new style, using geometric designs to re-create reality. This modern style of art is called cubism.
Modernism influenced architecture as well, and skilled builders Louis H. Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright created buildings that were clean-lined and functional.
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22. The Culture of Modernity (cont.)
In music, the ‘modern’ sounds of Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring caused a near-riot by Parisians, who were upset by the new sounds and rhythms of the performance.
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23. Uncertainty Grows
Scientific discoveries in this period had a profound impact on how people saw themselves and their world.
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24. Uncertainty Grows (cont.)
At the end of the nineteenth century, Marie Curie challenged the accepted view that the universe existed independent of its observers, with her discovery that the element radium gave off energy.
The German-born scientist Albert Einstein provided a new view of the universe with his theory of relativity, which stated that space and time are not absolute, but are relative to the observer.
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25. Uncertainty Grows (cont.)
A doctor from Vienna named Sigmund Freud asserted that human behavior was strongly determined by past experiences and internal urges.
Freud used a method known as psychoanalysis, in which he and a patient probed deeply into the patient’s memory for healing purposes.
Freud: In Search of the Unconscious
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26. Extreme Nationalism
In the late 1800s, extreme nationalism was reflected in the movements of Social Darwinism and anti-Semitism.
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27. Extreme Nationalism (cont.)
In the 1800s, many Europeans became fiercely nationalistic. They used Social Darwinism to justify the strength and wealth of nations.
In Europe, anti-Semitism had been around for centuries, but became more intense during the late 1800s. So as to win voters, political groups blamed Jews for many problems.
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28. Extreme Nationalism (cont.)
The worst treatment of Jews occurred in Russia, where persecutions and pogroms were widespread.
A Jewish nationalist movement called Zionism helped many Jews to emigrate from Europe to the United States and Palestine.
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