1. Theories of Motivation
Chapter 4:
Theories of Motivation
Organizational Behaviour
5th Canadian Edition
Langton / Robbins / Judge
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

2. Needs Theories of Motivation Process Theories of Motivation
Chapter Outline
What Is Motivation?
Needs Theories of Motivation
Process Theories of Motivation
Responses to the Reward System
Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement
Motivation for Whom?
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

3. Theories of Motivation
What is motivation?
How do needs motivate people?
Are there other ways to motivate people?
Do equity and fairness matter?
What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
What are the ethics behind motivation theories?
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

4. What Is Motivation? Motivation
The intensity, direction, and persistence of effort a person shows in reaching a goal:
Intensity: How hard a person tries
Direction: Where effort is channelled
Persistence: How long effort is maintained
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What Is Motivation?”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

5. Theory X and Theory Y Theory X Assumptions Theory Y Assumptions
Employees dislike work
Employees attempt to avoid work
Employees must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment if they are to perform.
Theory Y Assumptions
Employees like to work
Employees are creative, and seek responsibility
Employees can exercise self-direction and self-control.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What Is Motivation?”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

6. Motivators Intrinsic Motivators Extrinsic Motivators
A person’s internal desire to do something
interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction
Extrinsic Motivators
Motivation that comes from outside the person
pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What Is Motivation?”
Ask students whether they’re motivated more by intrinsic or extrinsic factors, and the conditions where this varies.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

7. Needs Theories of Motivation
Basic idea
Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will result in motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
ERG Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
The early needs theories, developed in the 1950s, are heavily attacked and now questionable in terms of validity. However, these are probably the best-known explanations for employee motivation, and they do represent the foundation from which contemporary theories have grown. Also, practising managers use these theories in explaining employee motivation
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

8. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological
Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs
Safety
Includes security and protection from physical & emotional harm
Social
Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship
Esteem
Includes internal esteem factors: self-respect, autonomy, and achievement
Includes external esteem factors: status, recognition, and attention
Self-actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming
Includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Abraham Maslow's theory is perhaps the best known of all. He hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

9. Exhibit 4-1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological
Safety
Social
Esteem
Self-
actualization
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

10. Alderfer’s ERG Theory Existence Relatedness Growth
Concerned with providing basic material existence requirements.
Relatedness
Desire for maintaining important interpersonal relationships.
Growth
Intrinsic desire for personal development.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
ERG Theory is the reworking of Maslow's needs hierarchy by Clayton Alderfer of Yale, to align it more closely with empirical research. He argues that there are three groups of core needs, existence, relatedness, and growth.
Besides substituting three needs for five, the ERG theory differs from Maslow’s in that it demonstrates that:
more than one need may be operative at the same time and
if the gratification of a higher-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.
As well, this is an example of OB humour: an “erg” is used in physics and is a measure of energy or work.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

11. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Motivators
Sources of satisfaction
Intrinsic factors (content of work)
Achievement
Recognition
Challenging, varied, or interesting work
Responsibility
Advancement
Hygiene factors
Sources of dissatisfaction
Extrinsic factors (context of work)
Company policy and administration
Unhappy relationship with employee’s supervisor
Poor interpersonal relations with one’s peers
Poor working conditions
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Motivation-Hygiene Theory was proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg after investigating the question, “What do people want from their jobs?” Factors affecting job attitudes were tabulated and classified. Herzberg concluded that the replies people gave when they felt good about their jobs were significantly different from the replies given when they felt bad.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

12. Exhibit 4-2 Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Herzberg’s data suggest that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as was traditionally believed. The factors that were cited as leading to extreme dissatisfaction had very little relation to those factors cited as leading to extreme satisfaction.
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from Frederick Herzberg, “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?” Harvard Business Review 81, no. 1 (January 2003), p. 90. Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

13. Exhibit 4-3 Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
Traditional view
Dissatisfaction
Satisfaction
Herzberg's view
Hygiene Factors
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Herzberg’s data suggest that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as was traditionally believed. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. Herzberg proposed the existence of a dual continuum: The opposite of "Satisfaction" is "No Satisfaction" and the opposite of Dissatisfaction" is "No Dissatisfaction."
Traditional view saw the continuum as Satisfaction to Dissatisfaction. Herzberg saw it otherwise.
1) People could have no dissatisfaction, but still not be satisfied.
2) Conditions that eliminate dissatisfaction do not bring about satisfaction.
3) Satisfaction is created after all dissatisfaction is eliminated.
Dissatisfaction
No Dissatisfaction
Motivators
No Satisfaction
Satisfaction
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

14. Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Procedure Herzberg used is limited by its methodology.
Reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned.
Herzberg did not really produce a theory of motivation.
No overall measure of satisfaction was used.
The theory is inconsistent with previous research.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

15. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for power
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for affiliation
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
David McClelland proposes three needs as being important in organizational settings for understanding motivation. These are
need for achievement (nAch), to achieve in relation to set of standards,
need for power (nPow), the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise, and
need for affiliation (nAff), the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

16. Exhibit 4-4 Relationship of Various Needs Theories
Hygiene
Factors
Need for Achievement
Need for Power
Need for Affiliation
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Affiliation
Security
Physiological
Motivators
Relatedness
Existence
Growth
Maslow
Alderfer
Herzberg
McClelland
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

17. Summary: Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be satisfied before one progresses to higher-order needs.
Herzberg: Motivators lead to satisfaction. Hygiene factors must be met if person is not to be dissatisfied. However, they will not lead to satisfaction.
Alderfer: More than one need can be important at the same time. If a higher-order need is not being met, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.
McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they have. Their motivation and how well they perform in a work situation are related to whether they have a need for achievement, affiliation, or power.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

18. Summary: Impact of Theory
Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising managers. Most managers are familiar with it.
Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater responsibility for planning and controlling their work can be attributed to his findings. Shows that more than one need may operate at the same time.
Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the need hierarchy. Tells us that achievers will be motivated by jobs that offer personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks.
McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not necessarily make good managers, since high achievers are more interested in how they do personally.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

19. Summary: Support and Criticism of Theory
Maslow: Research does not generally validate the theory. In particular, there is little support for the hierarchical nature of needs. Criticized for how data were collected and interpreted.
Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation: Assumes a link between satisfaction and productivity that was not measured or demonstrated.
Alderfer: Ignores situational variables.
McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but theory is consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Good empirical support, particularly on needs achievement.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

20. Process Theories of Motivation
Look at the actual process of motivation
Expectancy theory
Goal-setting theory
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

21. Expectancy Theory The theory that individuals act depending on:
whether their effort will lead to good performance
whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome
whether that outcome is attractive to them
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
This theory concerns an attractiveness, performance-reward and effort-performance linkage. The likelihood a person will act in a certain way depends on the strength of his or her expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Exhibit 4-6 is a good one to use in class. Ask students questions like: What if I asked you to write a paper? A book? To change the oil in your car? To build a car? Have them relate their responses in terms of expectancy theory.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

22. Expectancy Relationships
The theory focuses on three relationships:
Effort-Performance Relationship
The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance
Performance-Reward Relationship
The degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to a desired outcome
Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship
The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and and are attractive to the individual
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

23. Exhibit 4-6 How Does Expectancy Theory Work?
My professor offers me $1 million if I memorize the textbook by tomorrow morning.
Expectancy
Instrumentality
Valence
Effort Performance Link
Performance Rewards Link
Rewards Personal Goals Link
No matter how much effort
My professor does not look
There are a lot of wonderful things
I put in, probably not possible
like someone who has $1 million
I could do with $1 million
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
This is a good exhibit to use in class. Ask students questions like:
-What if I asked you to write a paper?
-A book?
-To change the oil in your car?
-To build a car?
Have them relate their responses in terms of expectancy theory.
to memorize the text in 24 hours
E=0
I=0
V=1
Conclusion: Though I value the reward, I will not be motivated to do this task.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

24. Exhibit 4-7 Steps to Increasing Motivation, Using Expectancy Theory
Improving
Expectancy
Improve the ability of the
individual to perform •
Make sure employees have skills
for the task
Provide training
Assign reasonable tasks
and goals
Instrumentality
Valence
Increase the individual ’
s belief that
performance will lead to reward
Observe and recognize
performance
Deliver rewards as promised
Indicate to employees how previous
good performance led to greater
rewards
Make sure that the reward is
meaningful to the individual
Ask employees what rewards
they value
Give rewards that are valued
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

25. Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance.
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended.
Specific goals increase performance.
Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals.
Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.
Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of “do your best.”
The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

26. Management by Objectives
A program that encompasses:
Specific goals
Participative decision-making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Management by objectives emphasizes employee participation in setting goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable. The idea was originally proposed by Peter Drucker more than forty years ago as a means of using goals to motivate people rather than to control them. Its appeal lies in its emphasis on converting overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for organizational units and individual members. The model conceptualizes a "cascading" of objectives down through the organization.
For the individual employee, MBO provides specific personal performance objectives.
MBO is a popular technique found in business, health care, educational, government, and non-profit organizations. Failures often are the result of unrealistic expectations regarding results, lack of top management commitment, and an inability or unwillingness by management to allocate rewards based on goal accomplishment.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

27. How Does Goal Setting Motivate?
Direct attention
Regulate effort
Increase persistence
Encourage the development of strategies and action plans
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

28. Goals Should Be SMART For goals to be effective, they should be SMART:
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results Oriented
Time bound
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
SMART goals are very popular in the business world, so you might have students work at remembering the acronym
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

29. Exhibit 4-8 Locke’s Model of Goal Setting
Directing attention
Goals
Regulating effort
Task
performance
motivate by
Increasing persistence
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Encouraging the development
of strategies and action plans
Source: Adapted from E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980). Reprinted by permission of Edwin A. Locke.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

30. Self-Efficacy Theory
Self Efficacy also known as social cognitive theory and social learning theory
An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
The higher your self efficacy the more confident you are in your ability to succeed in a task
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.” .
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

31. Four Ways to Improve Self Efficacy
Enactive Mastery
Gaining relevant experience
Vicarious Modelling
Confidence gained by seeing someone else perform the task.
Verbal Persuasion
Confidence gained because someone convinces you that you have the necessary skills to succeed.
Arousal
An energized state can drive a person to complete the task.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

32. Exhibit 4-9 Joint Efforts of Goals and Self Efficacy on Performance
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

33. Responses to the Reward System
Equity Theory
Fair Process and Treatment
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Increasing Intrinsic Motivation
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
Equity Theory: Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.
Fair Process: Concern for fairness in the process of distributing rewards.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Offering extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay) for work effort that was previously rewarded intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a person’s motivation.
Four key rewards that increase intrinsic motivation: sense of choice, sense of competence, sense of meaningfulness, and sense of progress.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

34. Exhibit 4-10 Equity Theory
Person 1
Inequity, under-rewarded
Equity
Inequity, over-rewarded
Ratio of Output to Input
Person 2
Person 1s Perception
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

35. Equity Theory
Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

36. Equity Comparisons Self-inside Self-outside Other-inside Other-outside
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
• Self-inside: An employee’s experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization.
• Self-outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization.
• Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization.
• Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

37. Adjust perceptions of self. Adjust perceptions of others.
Responses to Inequity
Change their inputs.
Change their outcomes.
Adjust perceptions of self.
Adjust perceptions of others.
Choose a different referent.
Leave the field.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
• Change their inputs (for example, don’t exert as much effort).
• Change their outcomes (for example, individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower quality).
• Adjust perceptions of self (for example, “I used to think I worked at a moderate pace but now I realize that I work a lot more slowly than everyone else”).
• Adjust perceptions of others (for example, “Mike’s job isn’t as desirable as I previously thought it was”).
• Choose a different referent (for example, “I may not make as much as my brother-in-law, but I’m doing a lot better than my dad did when he was my age”).
• Leave the field (for example, quit the job).
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

38. Equity Theory Propositions
When paid by time worked, over-rewarded employees will produce more than will equitably paid employees.
When paid by number of units produced, over-rewarded employees will produce fewer, but higher-quality, units than will equitably paid employees.
When paid by time worked, under-rewarded employees will produce less or poorer-quality output.
When paid by number of units produced, under-rewarded employees will produce a large number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

39. Fair Process and Treatment
Historically, equity theory focused on:
Distributive Justice: perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of resources among individuals.
Equity is thought of from various standpoints
Organizational Justice: an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.
Procedural Justice: perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.
Interactional Justice: the quality of interpersonal treatment from the manager.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

40. Exhibit 4-11 Model of Organizational Justice
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

41. Cognitive Evaluation Theory
The introduction of extrinsic rewards for work effort that was previously rewarded intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a person’s motivation.
Intrinsic Motivators
A person’s internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction.
Extrinsic Motivators
Motivation that comes from outside the person, such as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

42. Research Findings: Cognitive Evaluation Theory
A recent outgrowth of Cognitive Evaluation Theory is self concordance, which considers the degree to which people’s reasons for pursuing goals is consistent with their interests and core values.
OB research suggest that people who pursue work goals for intrinsic reasons are more satisfied with their jobs, feel like they fit into their organization better, and may perform better.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

43. Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation
Sense of choice
Sense of competence
Sense of meaningfulness
Sense of progress
Managers can act in ways that will build these intrinsic rewards for their employees.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

44. Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement
Skinner suggested that people learn how to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want.
This idea is known as operant conditioning.
Behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour.  
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

45. Methods of Shaping Behaviour
Positive reinforcement
Following a response with something pleasant.
Negative reinforcement
Following a response by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant.
Punishment
Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behaviour.
Extinction
Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
There are four ways in which to shape behaviour.
Exhibit 4-13 gives examples of each type of reinforcement.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

46. Schedules of Reinforcement
The two major types of reinforcement schedules are continuous and intermittent.
Continuous reinforcement: reinforces desired behaviour each and every time it is demonstrated.
Intermittent reinforcement: ratio or interval
The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of specific types of behaviour.
The individual is reinforced on the first appropriate behaviour after a particular time has elapsed.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
See Exhibit 4-14 Schedules of Reinforcement.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

47. Fixed and Variable Reinforcements
A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or variable.
Fixed-interval schedule
Variable-interval schedule
Fixed-ratio schedule
Variable-ratio schedule
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
Fixed-interval Schedule: The reward is given at fixed time intervals.
Variable-interval Schedule: The reward is given at variable time intervals.
Fixed-ratio Schedule: The reward is given at fixed amounts of output.
Variable-ratio Schedule: The reward is given at variable amounts of input.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

48. Exhibit 4-12 Building Blocks for Intrinsic Rewards
Leading for Choice
Leading for Competence
• Delegated authority
• Knowledge •
Trust in workers
• Positive feedback
• Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes
• Skill recognition
• A clear purpose
• Challenge
• Information
• High, non-comparative standards
Leading for Meaningfulness
Leading for Progress
• A non-cynical climate
• A collaborative climate
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
• Clearly identified passions
• Milestones
• An exciting vision
• Celebrations
• Relevant task purposes
• Access to customers
• Whole tasks
• Measurement of improvement
Source: Reprinted with permission of the publisher. From Intrinsic Motivation at Work: Building Energy and Commitment. Copyright © K. Thomas. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA. All rights reserved.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

49. Exhibit 4-13 Types of Reinforcement
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

50. Exhibit 4-14 Schedules of Reinforcement
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

51. Putting It All Together
What we know about motivating employees in organizations:
Recognize individual differences.
Employees have different needs.
Don’t treat them all alike.
Spend the time necessary to understand what’s important to each employee.
Use goals and feedback.
Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them.
Link rewards to performance.
Check the system for equity.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivation for Whom?”
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

52. Summary and Implications
What is Motivation?
Motivation is the process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward reaching the goal.
How do needs motivate people?
All needs theories of motivation propose a similar idea: individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will result in motivation.
Are there other ways to motivate people?
Process theories focus on the broader picture of how someone can set about motivating another individual. Process theories include expectancy theory and goal setting theory (and its application, management by objectives).
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

53. Summary and Implications
4. Do equity and fairness matter?
Individuals look for fairness in the reward system. Rewards should be perceived by employees as related to the inputs they bring to the job.
What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
B. F. Skinner suggested that behaviour is influenced by whether or not it is reinforced. Managers might consider, then, how their actions towards employees reinforce (or do not reinforce) employee behaviour.
What are the ethics behind motivation theories?
There is a debate among theorists about whether motivation theories are used for the employees’ benefit or to just improve productivity.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

54. OB at Work
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

55. For Review Define motivation. What are the key elements of motivation?
What are the implications of Theories X and Y for motivation practices?
Does motivation come from within a person, or is it a result of the situation? Explain.
Compare and contrast Maslow’s hierarchy theory of needs with Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene (two-factor) theory.
Explain the difference between hygiene factors and motivators in Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene (two-factor) theory.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

56. For Review Identify the variables in expectancy theory.
What is the role of self-efficacy in goal setting?
Contrast distributive and procedural justice. What implications might they have for designing pay systems in different countries?
Explain cognitive evaluation theory. How applicable is it to management practice?
Describe the four types of intermittent reinforcers.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

57. For Critical Thinking
Identify three activities you really enjoy (for example, playing tennis, reading a novel, going shopping). Next, identify three activities you really dislike (for example, visiting the dentist, cleaning the house, following a low-fat diet). Using the expectancy model, analyze each of your answers to assess why some activities stimulate your effort while others don’t.
Expectancy theory argues that for people to be motivated, they have to value the rewards that they will receive for their effort. This suggests the need for recognizing individual differences. Does this view contradict the principles of equity theory? Discuss.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

58. For Critical Thinking
To what extent will you be motivated to study under the following circumstances:
The instructor gives only one test—a final examination at the end of the course.
The instructor gives four exams during the term, all of which are announced on the first day of class.
The student’s grade is based on the results of numerous exams, none of which are announced by the instructor ahead of time.
“The cognitive evaluation theory is contradictory to reinforcement and expectancy theories.” Do you agree or disagree? Explain.
Analyze the application of Maslow’s and Herzberg’s theories to an African or Caribbean nation where more than a quarter of the population is unemployed.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

59. Breakout Group Exercises
Form small groups to discuss the following topics:
1. One of the members of your team continually arrives late for meetings and does not turn drafts of assignments in on time. Choose one of the available theories and indicate how the theory explains the member’s current behaviour and how the theory could be used to motivate the group member to perform more responsibly.
2. You are unhappy with the performance of one of your instructors and would like to encourage the instructor to present more lively classes. Choose one of the available theories and indicate how the theory explains the instructor’s current behaviour. How could you as a student use the theory to motivate the instructor to present more lively classes?
3. Harvard University recently changed its grading policy to recommend to instructors that the average course mark should be a B. This was the result of a study showing that more than 50 percent of students were receiving an A or A- for coursework. Harvard students are often referred to as “the best and the brightest,” and they pay $ (US) for their education, so they expect high grades. Discuss the impact of this change in policy on the motivation of Harvard students to study harder.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

60. Supplemental Material
Slides for activities I do in my own classroom
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

61. Exercise on Motivation Theories
Jesse has been underperforming at work, coming in late, and causing some problems with the other workers. Previously Jesse has been one of your star employees. Using the theory assigned to your group, explain what steps you might take to motivate Jesse to perform better.
Describe the plan.
Indicate how the plan relates to the theory.
This is the exercise I conduct in class in order to elicit discussion of the theories. This means that I lecture less, and the students have to think more. The exercise often takes a good part of the class. The theories considered appear on the next slide.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

62. Theories to Apply Herzberg Motivation-Hygiene (Two-Factor) Theory
Expectancy
Goal-Setting Theory
Equity
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Theories to apply for the exercise described on the previous slide.
Some thoughts for the debriefing:
Herzberg: Something about the conditions of the workplace may be having a negative impact; or Jesse may need more pay or recognition that before.
Expectancy: Jesse may be feeling that no matter what is done, it doesn’t get rewarded any more, and thus doesn’t see a connection between performance and reward.
Goal-Setting: Work with Jesse to develop goals.
Equity: Jesse may be feeling that others are getting rewarded the same for doing less work, and so has started doing less work too.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perhaps new rewards have been put in place, and Jesse’s starting to feel that performance isn’t as intrinsically motivating as before.
Based on these starting points, evaluate students’ plans for change.
Langton, Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behaviour, Fifth Cdn. Ed.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada