1. Unit 7A: Cognition: Memory

2. What is Memory?
Human memory is an information processing system that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve information
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3. Metaphors for Memory
Cognitive psychologists see human memory more as an interpretive system, such as an artist, rather than a system that takes an accurate recording, such as a video recorder
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4. Human Memory is Good at:
Information on which attention is focused
Information in which we are interested
Information that arouses us emotionally
Information that fits with our previous experiences
Information that we rehearse

5. Information Processing Model
Encoding - getting information into the memory system
Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time
Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage

6. Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
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7. Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Involves modification of information to fit the preferred format of the memory system
Elaboration – Deliberate encoding in which you connect a new concept with existing information
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8. Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Involves retention of encoded material over time
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9. Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Involves the location and recovery of information from memory
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10. Encoding The processing of information into the memory system.
Getting a girls name at a party
Typing info into a computer

11. Storage The retention of encoded material over time.
Trying to remember her name when you leave the party.
Pressing Ctrl S and saving the info.

12. Retrieval
The process of getting the information out of memory storage.
Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong name (retrieval failure).
Finding your document and opening it up.

13. The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
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14. The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli
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15. The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal, also called short-term memory or STM
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16. The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM
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17. The First Stage: Sensory Memory
On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second
Try to remember as many letters as you can
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18. D J B
X H G
C L Y
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19. The First Stage: Sensory Memory
How many can you recall?
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20. D J B
X H G
C L Y
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21. Sensory Memory Iconic store – visual information, ½ second
The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system
Iconic store – visual information, ½ second
Echoic store – sound information, seconds
Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

22. Sensory Memory
The actual capacity of sensory memory can be twelve or more items
All but three or four items disappear before they can enter consciousness
There is a separate sensory register for each sense
Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form of nerve impulses

23. Storage: Retaining Information Working/Short-Term Memory
Magic number Seven
Plus or minus 2
The list of magic sevens
Seven wonders of world
Seven seas
Seven deadly sins
Seven primary colors
Seven musical scale notes
Seven days of the week

24. Encoding and Storage in Working Memory
Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units
Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory

25. Encoding and Storage in Working Memory
Elaborative rehearsal – Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM
Making connections to previous memories will improve retrieval of new memory

26. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode
Ebbinghaus curve

27. Semantic Encoding The encoding of meaning
Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall

28. Semantic Encoding

29. Acoustic Encoding
Encoding information based on the sounds of the information

30. Acoustic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

31. Visual Encoding
Encoding information based on the images of the information

32. Visual Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

33. Encoding Errors Answer the following questions:
Which letters do not appear on the old standard telephone dial?
What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag? The bottom stripe?
How many sides do most wooden pencils have?
In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch?
The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill. What is on the back of a $10 bill? A $5 bill? A $1 bill?
What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on most U.S. coins?

34. Answers
Which letters do not appear on the old standard telephone dial? A: Q and Z
What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag? The bottom stripe? A: Red for both
How many sides do most wooden pencils have? A: Six
In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch? A: Right
The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill. What is on the back of a $10 bill? (Treasury Building) A $5 bill? (Lincoln Memorial) A $1 bill? (The word “One”)
What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on most U.S. coins? A: United States of America

35. The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory
Procedural memory (IMPLICIT)– Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done
Declarative memory (EXPLICIT) – Division of LTM that stores explicit information (also known as fact memory)

36. TYPES OF MEMORIES

37. The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory
Episodic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories for personal events, or “episodes”
Semantic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including meanings of words and concepts
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38. Storage: Retaining Information Storing Memories in the Brain
Stress Hormones and Memory
Emotions and memories
Flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

39. Storage: Retaining Information Long-Term Memory
Unlimited nature of long-term memory

40. MEMORIZE THE FOLLOWING SEQUENCE OF NUMBERS

41. What were the numbers???

43. Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list
Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list
Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

44. Primacy/Recency Effect or Serial Position Effect (From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

45. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode
Spacing effect
Massed practice
Distributed practice
Testing effect

47. Take out a piece of paper
Name the Seven Dwarves

48. Retrieval The process of getting information out of memory storage
Two forms of retrieval
Recall
Recognition

49. Recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
Example: Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short answer test questions test recall

50. Recognition
A measure of memory in which a person must identify items learned earlier
Example: Multiple choice and matching test questions test recognition

51. Now pick out the seven dwarves.
Turn your paper over.
Now pick out the seven dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy

52. Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

53. Context Effect
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information

54. Retrieval: Getting Information Out Context Effects

55. Context

56. State Dependent Memory
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when the person is in the same physical and emotional state they were in when they encoded the information