1. The Processes of encoding, storage & retrieval
What is Memory?
The Processes of encoding, storage & retrieval

2. What is Memory?
The encoding, storage and later retrieval of a response that was previously acquired.
The Learning Process is made up of Two Stages: Acquisition & Retention

3. Acquisition Acquisition – The initial learning of information.
Affected by…
1.     Attention Process
2.     Degree of Motivation
3.     Preparedness of the Learner
4.     Type of Practice Followed
5.     Kind of Material to be Learned
6.     Transfer of Training (Application)

4. Situational Factors that Influence Acquisition
Attention
Sensory Gating – process by which the brain sends messages to some of the sensory systems to decrease the amount of information they must deal with.
Example: Feeling of clothes, “white” noise
Parallel vs. Sequential Attention (parallel sensory processing)
Parallel – Useful only when receiving new info. Brain processes several different stimuli simultaneously.
Sequential Attention – Higher Level, treat each piece of info separately in order.
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5. Factors Influencing Attention
Feature Extraction (Decoding) – Sensory System selects which incoming stimuli to process then establishes meaning for these stimuli.
Example: “r” is different from “f”
Characteristics of the Learner:
Individual Differences: development, motivation, expression of emotions
Preparedness – Time & Place. Example: Chimps can’t speak but are prepared for signing.
The Learning Curve: Performance is not always an accurate indicator of learning.

6. Methods of Acquisition
1.     Overlearning – any repetition over the point of acquisition
Follows the law of diminishing returns – more is not always better.
2.     Knowledge of Results: Feedback – any info about the effect of a response.
Leads to faster acquisition of new material
Immediate feedback is more beneficial than delayed
3.     Distribution of Practice – Study - Rest - Study – Rest. (Take Breaks)
4.     Whole-Part Distribution – Deciding whether to learn the entire amount of material as a whole or divide it into parts to learn. Depends on the task.
5.     Active vs. Passive Approach – The more involved (active) you are in your learning the better you will remember it.
Content – We are better able to remember info that we can make associations to and infer meaning from.

7. The Information-Processing Model

8. Information Processing Model
Encoding - getting information into the memory system
Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time
Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage

9. How is Our Memory Like a Computer?
Both encode, store, and retrieve data
We can activate information from our long term memory (hard drives)
Information on the screen disappears if not used right away – short term memory

10. Encoding: Serial Position Effect

11. Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list
Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list
Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

12. Primacy/Recency Effect or Serial Position Effect (From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

13. Encoding: Spacing Effect

14. Spacing Effect = Distributed Practice
Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions separated by period of time
Yields better retention than is achieved through massed practice (cramming)

15. Massed Practice = Cramming
Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming)
Not as effective as distributed practice

16. Encoding: Encoding Meaning

17. Semantic Encoding The encoding of meaning What does this mean?
What are examples of this?
How can I apply this to my life?
Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall
How does this apply to me?

18. Self-Reference Effect
Type of semantic encoding
Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life
See how the “mental athletes” at the annual Memoriad do it – ABC News Report (4 min)

19. Semantic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

20. Acoustic Encoding
Encoding information based on the sounds of the information

21. Acoustic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

22. Visual Encoding
Encoding information based on the images of the information

23. Visual Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

24. Encoding: Organizing Information

25. Chunking Organizing information into meaningful units
More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.

27. Encoding: Mnemonic Devices

28. Mnemonic Device
A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts
“Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale

29. Method of Loci
A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to be remembered with imaginary places

30. Peg-Word System
A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized
Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

31. Peg Word System

32. Categorical Clustering
Grouping items you want to remember by categories
A type of chunking
Example: Grocery list organized by aisles or food category.

33. Acronyms Formed by the initial letters of INDIVIDUAL words.
Example: HOMES = Names of the Great Lakes

34. Acrostics
Acrostics are formed by the first letters of components LONGER THAN one word
Example: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally (Math)
Example: Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge (Music)

35. Interactive Images
Link a set of isolated words by creating visual representations for the words and then picturing interactions among the items.
Example: If you had to remember a list of random things like an aardvark, pencil, table and book picture the aardvark sitting on a table holding pencil in its claws and writing in a book.

36. Keyword System
Learning isolated words by linking sounds and meanings together.
Example: Elvis shook his pelvis
Stalactite holds tight to the ceiling
Fibula lies beneath the Tibia
Tibia is on top of the fibula

37. Do Mnemonics Work?
Watch this 8 minute video on how the world’s best memory competitors use mnemonics.
Andi Bell - World Memory Champion BBC (5 min) - How the Method of Loci & Interactive Images mnemonics help a memory champion remember 520 cards in order in a short amount of time. See how the host of this BBC show does when he tries this method (6 min).

38. Storage: Stages of Memory

39. Three Storage Systems Three distinct storage systems : Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory)
Long-Term Memory

40. Three Stages of Memory Three memory stages that differ in…
Capacity – How much info can be stored
Duration – How long the info can be stored
Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.
Information is transferred from one stage to another
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; long-term memory; attention; encoding; maintenance rehearsal; retrieval

41. Sensory Memory
Function—holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics
Capacity—large
can hold many items at once
Duration—very brief retention of images
.3 sec for visual info
2 sec for auditory info
Sensory
Input
Memory
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory

42. Sensory Memory Divided into two types:
Iconic Memory– visual information,
½ second
Echoic Memory– sound information,
2-3 seconds
Sensory
Input
Memory
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; echoic memory; Sperling
*Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

43. Sensory Memory
Sensory memory forms automatically, without attention or interpretation
Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory
Sensory
Input
Memory
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; attention

44. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Notes:
Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

45. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Notes:
Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

46. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Notes:
Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

47. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Want to try this experiment yourself? Click HERE
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Notes:
Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

48. Sperling’s Experiment Recap
Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 of a second
Report as many letters as possible
Subjects recall only half of the letters
Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to view entire matrix? No
How did Sperling know this?
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Note: This slide and the next slide present the basic protocol for Sperling's task - mainly in text form. For instructors who prefer a more visual representation, slides 7-10 present the same protocols in a more schematic manner.

49. Sperling’s Experiment Recap
Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the letters momentarily
Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared
tone signaled 1 row to report
recall was almost perfect
High
Medium
Low
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Notes:
This slide and the previous slide present the basic protocol for Sperling's task - mainly in text form. For instructors who prefer a more visual representation, slides 7-10 present the same protocols in a more schematic manner.
Not an afterimage because Sperling showed he could present the letters to one eye and influence the memory by presenting a bright flash to the other eye. This would not have worked if the visual information was stored on the retina.
Memory for image fades after 1-3 seconds or so, making report of entire display hard to do

50. Short-Term Memory
Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly before it is stored or forgotten
Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information
Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed
Also called “working memory”

51. Working Memory Function - conscious processing of information
where information is actively worked on
Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)
Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Code - often based on sound or speech even with visual inputs
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; memory span; 7 +/- 2 items
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention

52. Maintenance Rehearsal
Mental or verbal repetition of information
Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; maintenance rehearsal
Sensory
Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Attention
Sensory
Input

53. Ways to Improve STM: Chunking
Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information
expands working memory load
Which is easier to remember?
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; chunking
Sloth Meets Chunk

54. Storage: Long-Term Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal

55. Long-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
Holds memories without conscious effort

56. Retrieval

57. Retrieval The process of getting information out of memory storage
Two forms of retrieval
Recall
Recognition

58. Take out a piece of paper
Name the Seven Dwarves

59. Recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
Example: Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short answer test questions test recall
Recall Tests will do THIS to your head.

60. Recognition
A measure of memory in which a person must identify items learned earlier
Example: Multiple choice and matching test questions test recognition

61. Now pick out the seven dwarves.
Turn your paper over.
Now pick out the seven dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy

62. Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

63. Retrieval: Context

64. Context Effect
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information

65. Retrieval: State Dependency

66. State Dependent Memory
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when the person is in the same physical and emotional state they were in when they encoded the information
The retrieval state is congruent with the encoding state

67. The Three Processes of Memory
Let’s Review
The Three Processes of Memory

68. Encoding The processing of information into the memory system.
Typing info into a computer
Getting a girls name at a party

69. Storage The retention of encoded material over time.
Trying to remember her name when you leave the party.
Pressing Ctrl S and saving the info.

70. Retrieval
The process of getting the information out of memory storage.
Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong name (retrieval failure).
Finding your document and opening it up.