1. Unit 4 A.O.S # 1: How do levels of consciousness affect mental processes and behavior Exam REVISION

2. Key skills Distinguishing an NWC from an ASC
Distinguish between the characteristics of selective vs. divided attention
Describing the 4 types of brain waves: frequency, amplitude and when they occur
Describe what information the following provide in relation to consciousness: EEG, EMG, EOG, subjective reporting & video monitoring.
Describe how psychological indicators can be used to infer consciousness e.g. perceptual & cognitive distortions
Describe the effects of stimulants & depressants on brain wave activity
Comparison of 1 night of sleep deprivation vs. a legal BAC on cognition, concentration & mood.
Circadian vs. Ultradian rhythm
The role of zeitgebers, the SCN & melatonin in the sleep-wake cycle.
A description of the 4-6 sleep cycles in terms of variation in REM/ slow-wave sleep over successive cycles.
Key differences between REM vs NREM sleep
An explanation + evidence & limitations of restorative vs. evolutionary sleep
Variations in sleep requirements for: infants vs. children vs. adolescents vs. adult vs. elderly
An explanation of causes and effects of circadian phase disorders
Differences between: physiological vs. behavioural vs. cognitive vs. affective symptoms of partial sleep deprivation
Parasomnias vs dyssomnias
Causes and effects of narcolepsy, insomnia, delayed sleep-phase onset (DSPO), sleepwalking, sleep apnoea
Treatment for sleep disorders: CBT for insomnia, bright light therapy for DSPO)

3. Consciousness as a continuum
Definition: The level of awareness of our thoughts, feelings & perceptions i.e. our internal state & our surroundings i.e. our external environment.
Consciousness is a psychological construct – that is it can’t be directly measured only inferred based on physiological measures/ psychological observations & can be represented on a contiuum
A normal waking consciousness: occurs when there is an awareness of thoughts, feelings, perceptions & memories as well as the internal environment and the external surrounds
An altered states of consciousness is distinctly different in terms the level of awareness of thoughts, emotions, perception and the internal environment and external environment & can be naturally occurring or purposely induced
Continuum of levels of consciousness
Based on level of awareness
Focused awareness/ selective attention
Ordinary wakefulness
Divided attention
Alcohol-induced state
Daydreaming
Meditative state/ Hypnosis
Sleep
Anaesthetised
Coma
Normal waking consciousness
Altered States of consciousness

4. Exam question Question 3 VCAA sample exam
Which one of the following sequences best illustrates the consciousness continuum from most aware to least aware?
Induced coma – drowsy – fainted - focussed on exam paper
focussed on exam paper – fainted – drowsy – induced coma
Induced coma – fainted – drowsy - focussed on exam paper
focussed on exam paper – drowsy – fainted – induced coma
Answer: D

5. The role of attention as a measure of awareness
Attention is a concentration of mental activity that involves focusing on specific stimuli (whilst ignoring other stimuli)
Attention can shift consciously or unconsciously to internal or external stimuli.
Selective vs. Divided attention
Selective attention: is required when we need to limit our content to specific stimuli e.g. when performing brain surgery.
Divided attention: is involved when our content is less limited and we can multi- task e.g. having a chat whilst hanging up the washing
A controlled process is a task that requires a high level of mental effort and thus selective attention to complete e.g. performing brains surgery
An automatic process is a task that can be completed with mental effort & thus an individual can divide their attention between multiple-tasks such as maintaining a steady cadence on a stationary exercise bike whilst watching the footy on a big screen at the gym

6. Measuring consciousness
Remember: consciousness cannot be directly measured or observed (it is a psychological construct) But consciousness can be inferred (constructed) from information provided by physiological responses
Advantage of using physiological responses to determine consciousness:
it provides more reliable, quantitative data
Disadvantage of using physiological responses to determine consciousness:
It does not provide rich detail in terms of personal experiences (thoughts, feelings, etc)
For all of these physiological measures can you
Describe how it gathers data (D.A.R.E)
How does each infer consciousness e.g. REM vs. NREM sleep
EEG
EMG
Methods used to measure consciousness
EOG
Sleep diaries
Video monitoring

7. Measuring consciousness: EEG – Electroencephalograph Detects, Amplifies & Records Electrical activity of the brain (DARE)
4 types of brain waves
Measured & discussed in terms of
Frequency - the rate
Amplitude - peaks & troughs
Key skill: Identify when each type of brain wave occurs (in terms of consciousness)

8. Exam questions
Question 34 Sample exam How will the frequency and amplitude of a typical person’s brain waves change between an alert state and a drowsy state? Question 35 Sample exam Dr Shapiro, a school teacher, is screen a documentary program in his class. Towards the end of the class he notices that some of his students are not watching the TV screen. Maggie is busy working on a crossword puzzle, Monica is staring dreamily out the window & Keong has recently fallen asleep at the table. Which of the following identifies the prominent brain wave pattern for each student?
Frequency
Amplitude A
increase
decrease B C D
Maggie
Monica
Keong A
beta
alpha
delta B
theta C D

9. Changes in psychological state
1: Levels of awareness: generally reduced during an ASC e.g. alcohol-induced state
2: Content limitations: Generally content of our thoughts are less limited during an ASC e.g. a REM dream
3: Controlled & automatic process: We are more likely to make an error when in an ASC for both types of processes (can you clearly distinguish these)
4: Perceptual & Cognitive distortions: are generally experience during an ASC e.g. lowered sensitivity to pain when meditating
5: Self control: is generally impaired when in an ASC e.g. when daydreaming we may not notice that we dribbling whilst sucking on a pen
6: emotional awareness: is generally reduced e.g. when in an alcohol-induced state when responding to news of a death in a friends family.
7: time orientation: impaired e.g. when daydreaming we lose track of time
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10. Changes in levels of awareness due to stimulants & depressants
Depressants such as alcohol, marijuana & benzodiazepenes slow down (depress) nervous system activity.
They slow brain function, thus decrease alertness – resulting in a decrease in frequency/increase in amplitude or a decrease in beta brain waves and more alpha wave activity.
Stimulants such as caffeine, cocaine, nicotine & amphetamines increase (stimulate) nervous system activity.
They increase the level of alertness – resulting in an increase in brainwave frequency/decrease in amplitude as reflected by additional beta waves
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Effects on consciousness of 1 night of sleep deprivation vs. a legal blood alcohol concentration
One night of full sleep deprivation
Legal blood alcohol concentrations
Cognition
An individual may experience mild impairments in memory processes, diminished performance on complex tasks, reduced time orientation.
Concentration
Sleep deprivation can diminish the attention span, making it more difficult to concentrate
Alcohol can diminish the attention span, making it more difficult to concentrate
Mood
Sleep deprivation generally makes the individual more moody and irritable.
Alcohol can increase confidence (socially) and enhance mood
Recovery
Usually a couple of nights to recover the sleep debt
Usually a few hours for the alcohol to be removed from bodily systems.
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12. Past exam questions Question 29 2016 VCAA exam
It is likely that a person given a high dose of alcohol compared to a low dose would show
Increased distortion in time orientation and dulled emotional awareness
Decreased distortion in time orientation and dulled emotional awareness
Increased distortion in time orientation and heightened emotional awareness
decreased distortion in time orientation and heightened emotional awareness
Answer: A

13. Sleep and circadian rhythm
Sleep is a naturally (usually) and regularly occurring ASC,
Characterised by a loss of awareness of your internal state & external surroundings.
A circadian rhythm is a biological rhythm that spans 24 hours, it refers to the physiological & behaviour processes over a 24 hour cycle
Environmental cues such as Zeitgebers regulate our sleep-wake cycle e.g. light

14. Brain structures & hormones involved in sleep
The body’s sleep-wake cycle is largely controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) an area of the hypothalamus
The SCN receives information about the amount of light present in the environment from the eyes and will adjust the sleep-wake cycle accordingly by sending neural messages to the nearby pineal gland to release melatonin.
Melatonin is a sleep inducing hormone released into the blood by the pineal gland when it is dark.
Melatonin levels will thus increase when it is dark and make us drowsy, the level of melatonin will remain high during the night and then be reduced during the day when we are exposed to light.
SCN

15. Ultradian rhythm
Ultradian rhythm refers to a recurrent biological period or cycle that is repeated during a 24-hour period
e.g. heart-beat, breathing, secretion of a variety of hormones and sleep cycles
During sleep, the NREM-REM sleep cycles are regulated by an ultradian rhythm as the sleeper shifts from NREM to REM sleep on average every minutes for 4-6 sleep cycles
With each sleep cycle, the duration of REM increases and thus the duration of NREM decreases

16. REM – Rapid Eye Movement
REM sleep is called paradoxical sleep because - internally the brain is active & externally the body appears calm & inactive
Because the sleeper experiences REM paralysis known as cataplexy or muscle atonia.
The brain is more active during REM when contrasted with NREM
However the sleeper is totally relaxed, most of the skeletal muscles are limp

17. NREM stages 1 - 4
As we transition from wakefulness to sleep, we enter a hypnogogic state which might include hallucinatory images. Then we enter stage 1
NREM stage 1: is a light sleep that is brief in which the hypnic jerk may be experienced.
NREM stage 2: still a light sleep, the body is more relaxed (than stage 1), we spend more time in stage 2 than any other state.
NREM stage 3: a deeper sleep/ sleep inertia is experienced if awoken, aka slow wave sleep due to the presence of low frequency delta brain waves
NREM stage 4: the deepest sleep, similar characteristics to stage 3 NREM

18. Past exam questions
Qu.6a 2015 VCAA exam
Ernie started a new job working regular night shifts in a factory. In his new job he is required to operate a machine.
When sleeping during the day. Ernie experienced an increase in the number of memorable and vivid dreams compared to when he was sleeping at night.
With reference to the characteristics and patterns of sleep, explain whey Ernie experienced this increase in dreams.
Answer
As a result of his sleep deprivation and being deprived of adequate levels of REM sleep (IDENTIFY THE CAUSE)
Ernie will experience REM rebound, thus he will experience more time in REM sleep (IDENTIFY THE EFFECT)
REM is when most of our dreaming occurs thus he will experience an increase in vivid/ memorable dreams (LINK RESPONSE TO SCENARIO)

19. Purpose of sleep: 1 Restoration theory
Sleep reduces the neurotransmitter adenosine which is like a waste product that is released and accumulates whilst we awake and using energy.
Sleep – slows the metabolic rate (energy conservation)
Sleep – repairs and replenishes the body in readiness for the following day
Sleep enhances mood
Sleep enhances the immune system functionality.
REM sleep plays a key role in memory consolidation.

20. Evidence & limitations of restoration theory
Studies of participants in prolonged endurance activities reported having a higher volume of sleep, with proportionally more slow wave sleep
Newborn babies (& developing fetus) have a significantly higher proportion of REM sleep due to this peak period of growth in cognitive functioning.
Sleep increases immunity, sleep-deprived individual’s are more vulnerable to illness.
Limitation: Quadriplegics still spend similar proportions of sleep in NREM (including stages 3 & 4) as able bodied people despite the obvious lack of the need for physiological restoration.

21. Exam questions Sample exam Question 42
According to the restoration theory of sleep, adolescents spend more time in REM sleep than the elderly
In order to conserve energy and as protection from harm
In order to restore biological processes such as muscle & tissue repair
Because experiencing more deep sleep at night enhances the chance of survival
In order to restore mental processes so that neural circuits are consolidated or strengthened.
Answer: D (due to developmental plasticity)

22. Purpose of sleep 2: Evolutionary theory of sleep
Key skill
Can you explain why a high volume of sleep enhances survival for some species? E.g. possums
And likewise for species that have a low volume of sleep? E.g. giraffe’s
Limitation of survival theory: Our loss of awareness of external stimuli makes us highly vulnerable to predators when we are physiologically least prepared to respond due to our relaxed muscles (during deep sleep/REM sleep)

23. Sleep requirements over the lifespan
Focus on 5 age groups: infants, young children, adolescents, adults, elderly
Key skills
Why do infants have a higher proportion of REM sleep?
Why do elderly people have less slow-wave sleep?
Identify the sleep-wake shift from childhood to adolescence?
What is the normal proportion of REM/ NREM sleep for an adolescent/ adult?
Identifying the age groups depicted by the hypnograms below (largely by comparing the amount of slow-wave sleep experienced)

24. Number of complete sleep cycles
Past exam questions
Question VCAA exam
Describe two sleep-wake shifts that could be observed in the sleep patterns of a healthy adolescent compared with those of an adult.
Answer
We know that the transition from child to adolescence causes the body clock to move forward 2 hours – THIS HAS NO RELEVANCE IN THIS QUESTION likewise the delayed release of melatonin given we are comparing teens to adults –
thus marks awarded for…..
Teens tend to stay up later than adults (for as their body clock delays the release of melatonin (sleep-inducing hormone)
Teens tend to sleep in later than adults
Question 10
Which of the following indicates a typical nights sleep for an adult
Duration (mins)
Number of complete sleep cycles A
30-40
1 or 2 B
60-70
4 or 5 C
10-15 D
90-120

25. Circadian phase disorders
Circadian phase disorders occur when there is a disruption to the sleep-wake cycle.
This can result in difficulties going to sleep & daytime sleepiness.
Which can have adverse cognitive & psychological effects (discuss in the sleep deprivation section) as well as physical health & general well-being.
3 causes (covered in the course):
Jetlag
shiftwork
Sleep-wake shifts in adolescence

26. Delayed sleep phase syndrome onset (relates to teens) is an example of a circadian phase sleep disorder
Social or lifestyle cause: poor sleep hygiene i.e. staying up late on the weekends (for social reasons mainly) and sleeping in (to recover sleep debt accrued both during the week and from late nights on Friday & Saturday) which alters the circadian rhythm.
Biological cause: A delay in the release of melatonin; note this delay is unique to adolescence as adults will experience an earlier release of melatonin compared to adolescents
Effect: the teenager has difficulty going to sleep at their normal time (e.g pm) on weeknights thus accruing a sleep debt and also feel sleepy on weekday mornings.
Impact on wellbeing of accruing a sleep-debt: impaired cognitive functioning, difficulty concentrating, moodiness, fatigue, diminishing motivation – all contributing to a decline in academic achievement.
Treatment: either alter sleep patterns, bright light therapy, take melatonin supplements,

27. Effect of partial sleep deprivation A list of physiological symptoms
Sleepiness/ microsleeps
Slower HR/ respiratory rate
Slurred speech
Blurred vision/ difficulty focusing the eyes/ droopy eyelids (not eyes)
Drowsiness/ Fatigue/ lack of energy/ strength
Aches and pains in the body/ headaches/ migraines/ increased sensitivity to pain
Slower reflexes/ reaction time
Poor hand-eye coordination/ Hand tremors/ poor motor control
Cardiovascular changes/ increased blood pressure
Increased activation of the Sympathetic.N.S – more highly stressed (affecting judgement/ cognition)
Note: Impaired (reduced) immune system or impaired production of hormones both relate to prolonged sleep deprivation i.e. 3 days+ (not short term effects)

28. Effect of partial sleep deprivation A list of affective (emotional) symptoms
Sleep deprivation can interfere with emotional regulation and reactivity and make the person more moody/ irritable
Thus resulting in amplified emotional responses that are out of proportion (exaggerated)
The brain’s ability to process emotional stimuli is impaired by sleep deprivation - REM sleep in particular – it can result in a decreased ability to
Judge other people’s emotions
Feel empathy towards others
Make sound emotional decisions
Respond appropriately to situation, thus we may overreact (emotionally) to minor things because of a loss of perspective.
We may also be overly aggressive, impatient

29. Effect of partial sleep deprivation A list of behavioural symptoms
Sleep inertia which occurs when we first wake up, the individual may feel/ appear groggy, disoriented – particularly if woken during NREM stage 3 or 4 or REM sleep.
Reaction time slowed
Adversely affects our ability to complete tasks e.g. driving can be more risky.
Reduced motor skills or coordination
Higher rate of accidents/ injuries.
Microsleeps – which last for 3-15 seconds. The person is apparently awake, but is unable to process incoming information this might occur in a class on a train, you forget what you’re doing and you have no recollection of what occurred during the brief time the microsleep lasted.
Research on the effects of sleep deprivation has demonstrated: inferior performance on simple & monotonous tasks. But on more complex and interesting tasks – research has shown minimal/ no impairment.

30. Effect of partial sleep deprivation A list of cognitive symptoms
Lack of concentration
Lapses in selective attention
Impaired decision making processes and problem solving abilities
Diminished creativity
Impaired learning and memory processes
Irrational/ illogical thinking
Decline in ability to perform cognitive tasks/ impaired memory processes

31. Past exam questions Question 6 – 2013 Exam
Average 1.3/3 (27% scored 3/3)
Driving a car requires selective attention
Completing a crossword requires less mental effort thus only requires divided attention
Thus his ability to drive a car (a simple task) would be less affected than his ability to complete the crossword (a complex task)
Note as pointed out two slides ago: Sleep deprivation results in significant impairment in the ability to completing boring monotonous automatic processes (simple tasks). But past experiments indicate that sleep deprivation will have no significant effect on the ability to complete interesting controlled processes (complex tasks) as the individual can still effectively use selective attention.

32. Dyssomnia’s
Dyssomnias: are a group of sleep disorders that make it difficult to go to sleep or remain asleep.
Sleep-onset insomnia: is a condition which results in a sleeper having difficulty going to sleep.
A diagnosis relies on the sleeper taking more than 30 minutes to go to sleep on the majority of nights in the week (at least 4 out of 7)
Consequently the sufferer may experience delayed-sleep phase onset the next day.

33. Parasomnia’s
Parasomnias: are a group of sleep disorders that disrupt sleep e.g. sleep apnoea and sleep walking
Sleep walking: occurs during NREM stages 3 and 4, when there is a low level of consciousness, the sleeper performs activities that would be normally completed during a normal waking consciousness e.g. walking to the fridge and having a glass of milk. The sleeper will rarely remember the sleepwalking episode.

34. CBT: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for treating insomnia
CBT addresses the negative cycle of negative thoughts & emotions leading to poor sleep behaviour e.g. the use of alcohol/ stimulants/ inconsistent sleep-wake cycle & follows a 3-step process
It starts by identifying the negative thoughts (cognitions) and emotions about sleep via a questionnaire or sleep diary.
Then it attempts to challenge these negative thoughts (cognitions) and emotions about sleep and replace with more positive thoughts.
The patient is then taught more desirable sleep behaviours e.g. avoidance of bright lights late at night, avoiding stimulant use in the evening, etc.
The use of CBT has a major advantage over medical treatments as it deals with the cause of the insomnia rather than just relieving the effects of sleep disturbances.

35. Bright light therapy to treat circadian phase disorders
Exposure to bright (high intensity) light first thing in the morning (either sunlight or electrical light) will help reset the individual’s circadian rhythm (body clock), by advancing the circadian phase (makes it earlier) and thus the desired response is that the patient feels alert earlier in the day.
Exposure to the light can vary from 15 minutes to 2 hours (once or twice a day)
Bright light therapy can be used to treat: delayed sleep-phase onset, the effects of jet lag & night shift
Jet lag – if travelling east, the exposure to light should take place in the morning (in the new time zone), if travelling west, the exposure should be delay