1. Ethics: Theory and Practice
Jacques P. Thiroux
Keith W. Krasemann

2. Chapter One
The Nature of Morality

3. Five Branches of Philosophy
Epistemology (study of knowledge)
Metaphysics (study of the nature of reality)
Ethics (study of morality)
Aesthetics (study of values in art or beauty)
Logic (study of argument and reasoning)

4. Ethics and Morality
Ethics comes from the Greek ethos, meaning character
Pertains to the individual character of a person or or persons
Morality comes from the Latin moralis, meaning customs or manners
Pertains to the relationship between human beings

5. Amoral and Nonmoral
Amoral = having no moral sense, or being indifferent to right and wrong
This term can be applied to very few people
The complete absence of a sense of right and wrong may be caused by physical trauma to the brain
In addition, some criminal types are amoral despite moral education

6. Amoral and Nonmoral
Nonmoral = outside the realm of morality altogether
Inanimate objects are neither moral or immoral, but could be used immorally
Many areas of study are in themselves neither moral nor immoral

7. Scientific Approach to the Study of Morality
This approach is most often used in the social sciences and, like ethics, deals with human behavior and conduct
The emphasis in this approach is empirical

8. Scientific Approach to the Study of Morality
This approach is also descriptive because it involves the observation of human behavior and the description of those observations
In this approach, the observers make no value judgments as to what is morally right or wrong

9. Philosophical Approach to Ethics
Normative Ethics
Deals with norms (or standards) and prescriptions
Goes beyond observation and description and makes normative moral value judgments

10. Philosophical Approach to Ethics
Analytic Ethics
Rather than being descriptive or prescriptive, analyzes ethical language and the rational foundations of ethical systems

11. Synthesis of Approaches
The complete study of ethics demands a reasonable synthesis of ethical views
Requires the use of descriptive, normative, and metaethical approaches
Ethicists draw on data and results of experiments from the natural, physical, and social sciences

12. Synthesis of Approaches
They also must examine their language, logic, and foundations
Finally, ethicists should contribute something toward helping all human beings live with each other more meaningfully and more ethically

13. Morality and its Applications
There is a difference between ethics and aesthetics
The terms good, bad, right, and wrong can be used in a nonmoral sense, usually in references to how someone or something functions
Manners, or etiquette, differs from morality even though the two are related

14. Four Aspects of the Application of Morality
Religious morality is concerned with human beings in relationship to a supernatural being
Morality and nature are concerned with human beings in relationship to nature

15. Four Aspects of the Application of Morality
Individual morality is concerned with human beings in relationship to themselves
Social morality is concerned with human beings in relationship to other human beings
This is the most important category

16. Who is Morally or Ethically Responsible?
At the present time, only humans can be considered to be moral or immoral; therefore, only humans should be considered morally responsible
Some recent experiments suggest that in the future certain animals could be taught to be moral

17. Objective Views of Morality
Values come from some supernatural being or beings
There are moral laws embedded in nature itself
The world and objects in it have value with or without the presence of valuing human beings

18. Subjective View of Morality
In opposition to the objective views, some believe that morality and values reside strictly within human beings and that there are no values or morality outside of them

19. Criticism of Objective View
It is difficult to prove conclusively the existence of any supernatural being(s) or to prove that values exist outside the natural world
There is a difference between “natural laws” and “moral laws”

20. Criticism of Objective View
There is no conclusive evidence that “natural moral laws” exist
It is impossible to think of things of value without someone valuing them

21. Criticism of Subjective View
Because aspects of the world and nature can be valued whether or not human beings exist, values would not seem to be totally subjective
It is true that there are many things in the world, such as art, science, politics, and music that are valued only by human beings, but there are many others that are valuable whether human beings are around or not

22. The Synthesized View: Values are Both Objective and Subjective
Values are determined by three variables:
The first variable is the thing of value, or the thing valued
The second is a conscious being who values, or the valuer
The third is the context or situation in which the valuing takes place

23. Theory on the Origin of Morality
If values are both objective and subjective, it is possible to construct the following theory concerning the origin of morality:
It comes from a complex interaction between conscious human beings and material, mental, or emotional “things” in specific contexts
It stems from human needs and desires and is based on human emotions and reason

24. Customary Morality
Customary (or traditional) morality is based on custom or tradition
This is the first type of morality that we encounter
Customary morality is presented to members, often accepted without analysis or critical evaluation, throughout childhood and adult years

25. Reflective Morality
Reflective morality is the careful examination and critical evaluation of all moral issues whether or not they are based on religion, custom, or tradition
All customs, traditions, systems of ethics, rules, and ethical theories should be carefully analyzed and critically evaluated before we continue to accept or live by them

26. Morality and the Law Morality is not necessarily based on law
However, the law provides a public statement to guide humans in their behavior and to protect them from doing harm to persons and property

27. Morality and the Law
Some laws have more or less moral impact than others, but the relationship between law and morality is not reciprocal
What is moral is not necessarily legal and what is legal is not necessarily moral

28. Morality and Religion
Throughout history, religion served as a powerful institution for getting people to behave morally
But, the fact that religion may have preceded formal legal or moral systems, or that it may have provided very powerful and effective sanctions for morality, does not prove that morality must of necessity have a religious basis

29. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s theory sets up three distinct levels of moral thinking, and each level is arranged in two stages
Preconventional Level
The Punishment and Obedience Orientation
The Instrumental/Relativist Orientation

30. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Conventional Level
The Interpersonal Concordance
The “Law and Order” Orientation
Postconventional Level
The Social Contract Orientation
The Universal-Ethical-Principle Orientation

31. Preconventional Level
Terms like good and bad, or right and wrong are interpreted in terms of either physical or hedonistic consequences of action
Stage One: Moral decisions are made in response to authority
Stage Two: Moral decision making is conditioned primarily by self-interest

32. Conventional Level
Similar to the customary or traditional morality, which is unreflective and consists in maintaining or conforming to the expectations of others

33. Conventional Level
Stage Three: Conformity with the group, living up to other’s expectations, and earning the approval of others by being “nice”
Stage Four: Concerned with maintaining social order for its own sake or as an end in itself

34. Postconventional Level
Also called the autonomous or principled level
Requires reflective morality and the ability to effectively engage ethical reasoning apart from, or independently of, group identification and authority

35. Postconventional Level
Stage Five: Understand that there are ends beyond the law and that laws are crafted to bring about these ends; views laws as a social contract
Stage Six: Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency

36. A Working Definition of Morality
Morality, or ethics, deals basically with human relationships—how human beings treat other beings so as to promote mutual welfare, growth, creativity, and meaning as they strive for good over bad and right over wrong