The Nature of Literacy and Today’s Students

The Nature of Literacy and Today’s Students
Chapter 1 The Nature of Literacy and Today’s Students

Fostering Emergent/Early Literacy
Chapter 4 Fostering Emergent/Early Literacy

What is Emergent/Early Literacy
The child already has some knowledge of reading and writing. Emergent Literacy The child is on the verge of acquiring this reading and writing knowledge. It consists of the reading and writing behaviors that evolve from children’s earliest experiences with reading and writing. This grows into conventional literacy.

Essential Skills/Understandings for Emergent Literacy: What are Concepts of Print
What we say and what others say can be written down and read. Words, not pictures, are read. Sentences are made up of words and words are made up of letters. Reading goes from left to right and top to bottom. A book is read from front to back.

Concepts of Print Continued
What we say is divided into words. Spaces separate written words. Sentences begin with capital letters. Sentences end with periods, question marks, or exclamation points. A book has a title, an author, and sometimes an illustrator. Students must develop phonological awareness and arrive at an understanding of the alphabetic principle.

What is a literacy rich classroom?
An environment that promotes opportunities for active reading, writing, listening, and speaking. What are examples of how this can be done? How could you arrange the classroom to most facilitate this type of environment?

Reading to Students One of the best ways to develop students’ emergent literacy is to read interesting books to them. It helps… Develop children’s vocabulary. Develop their experiential background. Make them aware of the language of books. Introduce them to concepts of print and how books are read. Provide them with an enjoyment of reading.

How Can You Develop Story Structure?
Discuss literary language with your students. Point out story elements Characters Setting Problem Events Solution Theme

How Can You Build Comprehension
During book discussions, ask a variety of questions, including those that involve Important details Sequence Drawing conclusions Making Inferences Use questions as a way of Drawing attention to important details. Relating details so that a conclusion can be drawn. Constructing main ideas. Think of discussions as a way of sharing so that books can be more fully understood and enjoyed.

How Can You Help Students Make Personal Connections
After discussing a story, do follow-up or extension activities. Use the book to develop learning centers. Listening center—tape of story Watch a videotape Read other books by the same author. Activity related to the book.

What is a Themed Approach?
A way to make connections using units of study. Focus is a common topic or theme. Example—Transportation Read aloud books with a travel theme Sing song and recite rhymes Transportation vocabulary words Environmental print—road signs, travel schedules, receipts.

What is Emergent Storybook Reading?
The evolving ability of a child to read storybooks. Progresses from… Simply telling the story using the pictures in the book or after hearing it read aloud. Reading the book conventionally.

What is a Shared Book Experience?
The teacher reads aloud to students using a big book. Books chosen usually have repetitive text or chants, songs, and poems. Provides multiple exposures to a book. Reinforces concepts of print.

What is a Language Experience Approach?
Approach to literacy teaching where one student or a group of students dictates a story to the teacher. The dictated story is used for reading and writing instruction.

Steps in the LEA 1. Teacher and student discuss the topic to be focused on in the dictation. Observations and opinions are exchanged. Oral language skills are developed and reinforced. 2. The student dictates an account or story to the teacher, who records the statements to construct the basic reading material. 3. The student reads the story several times (with the teacher helping as needed), until the story has become quite familiar. Reading comprehension is made easier by the fact that the student is reading material that is self-generated. 4. Individual story words are learned, and other reading skills are reinforced through teacher-designed activities related to the story. 5. Students move from reading their own dictation to reading other-author materials as they develop confidence and skill with the reading process.

Shared Writing Both the teacher and students compose a story together.
The class writes about experiences they have had or about books that they have read. Students can actual participate in the writing. Students help with the spelling or writing of initial, medial, or ending sounds. The teacher emphasizes reading for meaning and basic concepts about print.

When Should Writing Instruction Begin
Immediately!! Reading and writing skills develop simultaneously and are interrelated. Writing instruction is not handwriting, copying, or spelling instruction. Writing development progresses from random scribbling to meaningful marks.

Consonant Sounds Consonants are formed by obstructing or interfering in some way with the flow of the breath. There are 25 consonant sounds in the English language. Consonants can be distinguished by place and manner of articulation and voice. Voiced consonant-accompanied by a vibration of the vocal cords-ex. /b/ Voiceless consonant-no vibration is heard-ex. /p/

Consonant Sounds Continued
Look at page How do you use your tongue, lips, and teeth to form the consonant sounds? Voiced stop-barn-/b/-lips; deer-/d/-tongue behind teeth; gate-/g/-back of mouth Voiceless stop-pot-/p/-lips; time-/t/-tongue behind teeth; kite-/k/-back of mouth Nasals-me-/m/-lips; now-/n/-tongue behind teeth; sing-/ng/-back of mouth Voiced fricative-van-/v/-lips and teeth; this-/th/-tongue between teeth; zipper-/z/-tongue behind teeth; azure-/zh/-roof of mouth Voiceless fricative-fan-/f/-lips and teeth; thin-/th/-tongue between teeth; sight-/s/-tongue behind teeth; ship-/sh/-roof of mouth; horse-h-throat Voiced affricative-jug-/j/-roof mouth Voiceless affricative-chip-/ch/-roof of mouth Semivowels-we-/w/-lips; yacht-/y/-roof of mouth Glides-whale-/hw/-lips Liquids-ride-/r/-lips and teeth; lion-/l/-roof of mouth

Vowel Sounds Vowels are articulated with the tongue, lips, and teeth.
Vowels are classified according to where they are articulated. Look at page Say each vowel sound. What do you notice about how it is articulated? Why are /oy/ and /ow/ not included in the chart?

Vowel Sounds Continued
Front Central Back High /ē/ (beat) /ĭ/ (bit) /ōō/ (boot) /oo/ (book) Mid /ā/ (bait) /ĕ/ (bet) /ŭ/ (but) Schwa /ō/ (boat) Low /ă/ (bat) /ī/ (bite) /ŏ/ (bottle) /aw/ (bought)

Effect of Environment Speech sounds are altered by the other sounds that surround them. This can cause confusion for children when trying to spell the words. Nasalization-/m/, /n/, and /ŋ/ are partially absorbed by the preceding and following consonants (ex. ant spelled as at, sand spelled as sad). It helps to present –an and –am patterns as units versus as individual sounds: /a/ and /n/ or /a/ and /m/. Syllabic consonants-/l/, /r/, /m/, and /n/ at the end of the word can represent a syllable (ex. letter spelled as letr, little as litl) Affrication-a stop of breath is followed by a fricative (ex. phonemes /t/ and /d/ are affricated when they appear before the /r/ sound (ex. train spelled as chran; drum as jrm or jm) Aspiration-a puff of air made when you articulate. For example, pit versus tip-which moves the paper? The sounds /b/, /p/, and /k/ are usually aspirated at the beginning of a syllable, but not at the end. This may confuse students when they are spelling words. Vowel blending-some vowels blend in with the consonant sound that follows them. This is especially true of the consonant sounds /l/ and /r/--bird may be spelled as brid, and girl as grl.

Spelling Developmental Stages
Random Scribbling 18 months Wordlike Scribbling 3 years Prephonemic writing (Also called Prealphabetic) 4-5 years Early Alphabetic 4-6 years Alphabetic 5-7 years Consolidated 6-7 years Syllable Juncture 8-10 years Derivational Constancy 10-20 years

Encouraging Children to Write
Make sure every student realizes that he or she has something to say. The teacher’s role should be active where she models the writing process at every opportunity. Invitations to write should be extended whenever possible. Children of all developmental stages can write—whether it is scribbling, drawing a picture, or using invented spelling. Encourage children to read their writing to others.

Effective Writing Activities
Write letters to each other Create invitations for events Write stories about what is happening in their lives Write stories about special events Make connections to books they are reading Encourage children to make lists

Key Words Phonological Awareness—the ability to detect rhyme and separate the sounds in words. This is a broad area that includes phonemic awareness. Phoneme—individual speech sounds How many sounds are in the word cake? Phonemic Awareness—an awareness of sounds in the speech stream. Grapheme—written letter(s) that represents the sound Coarticulation—the process of articulating a sound while still articulating the previous sound.

Using Word Play to Develop Phonological Awareness
Play games with words. Read books that have fun with words. Read books that call attention to word parts.

Developing the Concept of Rhyme
Read nursery rhymes and other rhyming stories to students to help develop their concept of rhyme. Discuss the concept of rhyme. What does this mean? Build rhymes with students. Use word families to build concept of rhyme.

What is Blending? Students create words by combining word parts.
Onsets and rimes can be used for blending activities: Onset—the part of the word prior to the vowel. (c) Rime—the vowel to the end of the word (-at) Ask students to solve riddles that incorporate both rhyming and blending: I’m thinking of a word that begins with /t/ and rhymes with man. What is my word?

Helping Students to Perceive Beginning Consonant Sounds
Use the concept of alliteration to reinforce the beginning consonants sounds we hear in words. Animalia Four Famished Foxes and Fosdyke

What is Segmenting? Segmenting is the process of separating words into sounds. What sounds do you hear in horse? Use Elkonin boxes to segment words.

Key Terms to Know Reading—a process of constructing meaning from print
Phonology—the language component that consists of producing and understanding sounds Morphology—the component of language that has to do with meaningful word parts, such as root words and affixes

Key Terms Continued Syntax-the way words are arranged in a sentence
Semantics—the component of language that has to do with meaning Graphophonic—component of language that has to do with letter/sound correspondence Pragmatics—component of language that has to do with engaging in effective communication Prosody—the component of language that has to do with rhythm of speech: pitch, stress, juncture

Behaviorism What is behaviorism? Describe characteristics.
Philosophy of learning that describes all the activities of an organism in terms of observable actions or behaviors. Stresses observable responses to stimuli. Describe characteristics. Learning consists of the acquisition of new behaviors. Responses that are reinforced increase in frequency. Responses that are not reinforces are extinguished (do not occur again). Behaviors are learned or increased when reinforcers are used (e.g., praise, privileges, gold star, other type of reward). Basic principle of behaviorism is that we tend to repeat behaviors that are rewarding and avoid those that are not.

Behaviorism-Example of a Program
Reading Mastery is an example of a program that takes a behavioristic approach. Describe what that program looks like. Students first learn letter sounds and then learn to blend the sounds to learn new words. The teacher points to a letter and says, "Here is a new sound.” The teacher touches the letter and says the sound for the letter. Students are told to say the sound of the letter when the teacher touches the letter. Signals are used so that students respond in unison. Individual students are called on to say the sound.

Cognitivism What is cognitivism? Describe 3 characteristics.
Philosophy of learning that describes the activities of an organism in terms of observable actions or behaviors and internal or mental states. Based on the proposition that mental processes exist and can be studied. Describe 3 characteristics. Humans are active participants in their learning rather than passive. Reinforcement is seen as being important to learning because it a) strengthens responses, b) is a source of information and feedback. This approach tends to be student-centered. Piaget's theories are considered to be an example of a cognitive approach to learning.

Jean Piaget Piaget is also considered to be constructivist, which is a philosophy of learning that describes learning as an active process in which the learner constructs mental models of reality. They don’t simply reproduce what they hear. Piaget believed that children interact with the world around them. Children’s thinking is qualitatively different from adult’s thinking and that it evolves through a series of hierarchical stages. Through adaptation or interaction with the environment, children build schemes that help them make sense of the world. Adaptation includes two complementary processes: Assimilation—the process of incorporating new ideas into existing ones Accommodation—the process through which concepts or schema are modified or new ones are created to accommodate new knowledge.

L.S. Vygotsky Similar to Piaget, Vygotsky also believed that children interact with the world around them. Vygotsky also stressed the importance of social factors in cognitive development. He also distinguished between actual development and potential development. Known as ZPD Refers to the difference between what a child can do on his own and what the child can do with help.

Scaffolding What is scaffolding? How does it work?
Temporary support structures provided to student to assist them as they learn new information or complete assigned tasks. How does it work? The idea is that the teacher introduces a new concept or topic by demonstrating or modeling it to students. Students are then given the opportunity to practice this concept as a class, then perhaps in a smaller group. The student then takes what he/she has learned about the topic/concept and applies it independently.

Examples of Scaffolding
What are examples of scaffolding? modeling, demonstration, prompts or guides, essential questions, scoring guides or rubrics, graphic organizers.

Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories
Provide students with hands-on experiences and opportunities to make discoveries. Be aware of and plan for individual differences. Children learn best when activities are developmentally appropriate. Classrooms should be rich in verbal guidance through interaction with the teacher and with peers.

The Reader’s Role in the Reading Process
Louise Rosenblatt describes every reading act as an event, or a transaction, that involves a reader and a text. Every reader takes a stance, or attitude, towards the text: efferent: the focus is on obtaining or carrying away information from the reading. aesthetic: the focus is on the reading experience, the rhythm of the words, the past experiences called up when reading

Approaches to Reading Instruction #1
Bottom-Up The kind of processing where meaning is derived from the accurate, sequential processing of words. This model emphasizes a single-direction, part-to-whole processing of a text. The emphasis is on the text rather than the reader’s background knowledge or language ability. Instruction proceeds from simple to complex—children first learn names and shapes of letters, next they learn consonant sounds, followed by more simple and more complex vowel correspondence.

Top-Down Learning to read should be holistic and natural through immersion in print. Refers to how meaning is derived by using one’s background knowledge, language ability, and expectations. Reading is a meaning-driven process. Readers identify letters or words only to confirm their assumptions about the meaning of the text. The emphasis is on the reader rather than the text. Proponents of the top-down approach generally agree that comprehension is the basis for decoding skills, not a singular result, and meaning is brought to print, not derived from print (from

Interactive This model assume that skills at all levels are interactively available to process and interpret the text (Grabe 1988). Good readers are both good decoders and good interpreters of text, their decoding skills becoming more automatic but no less important as their reading skill develops (Eskey 1988). Belief that reading involves processing text and using one’s background knowledge and language ability. It is a blending of both bottom-up and top-down.

Interactive continued
Skills are taught directly and systematically while also having students read whole books and write for real purposes. To properly achieve fluency and accuracy, developing readers must work at perfecting both their bottom-up recognition skills and their top-down interpretation strategies. Good reading (that is fluent and accurate reading) can result only from a constant interaction between these processes. Fluent reading entails both skillful decoding and relating information to prior knowledge (Eskey, 1988). From

Reading and Writing Program for Today’s Students—10 Principles
Children learn to read by reading. Reading should be easy—but not too easy (no more than 2-5% of words are difficult in a text). Instruction should be functional and contextual. Build bridges and connections between children’s experiences and what they are about to read. Promote independence so that children are able to eventually use skills on their own. Believe that all children can read and write. The literacy program should be goal-oriented and systematic. Build students’ motivation and sense of competence. Build student’s language proficiency. Use ongoing assessment to determine how students are progressing.

Highly Effective Teachers
Are caring and have high expectations Balance instruction with skills being taught when needed, and the skills relate to the reading and writing being done by students. Use every opportunity to teach and reinforce skills. Use prompts and other devices to scaffold students’ learning. Are well-organized with clearly established routines and maintain a classroom atmosphere of cooperation. Have well-stocked classrooms with a variety of reading materials. Match materials and tasks to what students are able to do—within their developmental levels.

Review of High Frequency Words, Phonemic Awareness, and Phonics
Word Recognition Review of High Frequency Words, Phonemic Awareness, and Phonics

Stages in Reading Words
Prealphabetic Usually around PK and K Environmental print Selective association Might use random letters to spell words May be able to spell their name bec/they have memorized the words.

Partial Alphabetic Letter-sound relationships used to read words. Words may be represented by using one letter. May begin to use vowels, but words will not be spelled correctly.

Full Alphabetic Sometimes also called letter-name stage. Begin to process all letters in words. Begin to apply their knowledge of letter-sound relationships. Cautious reading word-by-word. Vowel sounds are spelled although it may not be correct.

Consolidated Alphabetic Sometimes called within-word pattern stage. Longer and more sophisticated words are processed. Begin to recognize words instantaneously on sight without having to analyze letter by letter.

Word Recognition What is word recognition?
Strategies we use to identify the oral equivalent of a word. What are areas included in word recognition? Sight Words Phonemic Awareness Structural Analysis Phonics

Sight Words High Frequency Words Colors Numbers
Dolch Fry Colors Numbers How can we teach this type of word recognition area? Examples of centers—BINGO, Concentration, PIG, Cloze, Roll-Say-Keep, and Gameboards.

Phonemic Awareness Awareness of Sounds in the Speech Stream
How many sounds do you hear in cat, horse, and bath? Ways we can teach… Blending Segmenting Substituting—more advanced skill Lots of language play Rhymes Songs

Examples of Phonemic Awareness—Rhyming Word Sit Down
Children walk around the room in a big circle taking one step each time a rhyming word is said by the teacher. When the teacher says a word that does not rhyme with the other words, then the children sit down. Examples—she, tree, flea, spree, key, bee, sea, went (children sit down)

Examples of Phonemic Awareness—Syllable Clap
Talk with students about why knowing about syllables can help them read and write words. Ask students to clap with you to identify the syllables they hear in each word. Examples—adapt according to level of student airplane table porcupine school vacation dinner calendar television football

Examples of Phonemic Awareness—Identification of Sounds in Words
Using a song format to isolate the sound heard in the words—sung to Old McDonald. What’s the sound that starts these words—turtle and time and teeth? (Wait for response) /t/ is the sound that starts these words—turtle, time, and teeth. With a /t/, /t/ here, and /t/, /t/ there, here a /t/, there a /t/, everywhere a /t/, /t/. /t/ is the sound that starts these words—turtle and time and teeth. Repeat with also with middle sounds and ending sounds.

Examples of Phonemic Awareness—Teaching Phonemic Blending—”I Say it Slowly, You Say it Fast” Game
Explain to students that you will say the words slowly. Students should repeat the word back to you. Example— Teacher says /k/-/ă/-/t/ Child says cat. Teacher says /r/-/ŏ/-/k/ Child says rock.

Examples of Phonemic Awareness—Sound boxes
Show students how to make sound boxes on their paper or lap boards. As the student says a word, then she stretches it out, while sliding a marker into each box as the sound, or phoneme, is heard. Example— dog horse Lamp teeth

Examples of Phonemic Awareness— Phonemic Segmentation
This activity teaches phonemic segmentation using a song format—Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star (sort of) Listen, listen to my word, Then tell me all the sounds you heard race /r/ is one sound /ā/ is two /s/ is last in race, it’s true. Thanks for listening to my word, And telling all the sounds you heard.

Examples of Phonemic Awareness— Consonant Substitution
The most difficult task to do—substitution—requires multiple levels of processing. Children listen to a given word, then substitute a new sound in the word. Example— What rhymes with pig and starts with /d/--dig. What rhymes with book and starts with /k/--cook. What rhymes with sing and starts with /r/--ring. What rhymes with dog and starts with /fr/--frog.

Structural Analysis Looking at parts of the words, or chunks.
Knowledge of syllables. Includes compound words, contractions, multisyllable words, inflectional endings, prefixes, suffixes. Teach by analogy by focusing on onset and rime: Onset—part of the syllable prior to the vowel Rime—vowel to the end of the syllable Example—cat– “c” is onset, “-at” is rime If I can spell cat, then I can spell bat, fat, hat, mat, pat, rat, sat, and vat. Example—hit—”h” is onset, “-it” is rime If I can spell hit, then I can spell bit, fit, kit, lit, sit, wit, and zit.

Implications for Instruction in Syllabic Analysis
Ss should be taught to process all of the syllables in words. Ss need to be taught to see patterns in words. Ss need to be flexible in their decoding of words-they should be prepared to try another pronunciation if one way does not work. Ss should integrate context and syllabic analysis. Ss need to be reminded to use orthographic aspects of phonics (awareness of sequence of letters when spelling the word). Ss should be aware that an element in a multisyllabic word may not be read in the same way as it is represented in a single syllable word (carrots, car). Elements such as –tion and –ture as in mention and future, which only occur in multisyllabic words, need a careful introduction, frequent review, and a great deal of practice.

Generalization Approach to Teaching Syllabic Analysis
Ask students to sort a group of words. Teach a generalization (general rule) for dividing words, such as: Easy affixes-most form a separate syllable (ex. help-ful, re-build) Compound words-usually are two separate words (ex. sun-set, night-fall) Two consonants between two vowels-usually divide between the two consonants (ex. win-ter, con-cept) The ending –le-usually combined with a preceding consonant to create a separate syllable (ex. cra-dle, ma-ple) Two vowels together-a limited number of words split between the two vowels (ex. i-de-a, di-al). The idea behind teaching Ss an awareness of syllabic analysis is that it helps students to decode an unfamiliar by separating the word into its syllabic parts, then recombining the parts into a whole.

Pattern Approach to Syllabic Analysis
Introduce the syllabic pattern-introduce the pattern in a single syllable word Present the pattern along with a model word Formulate a generalization. Guided Practice Application Assessment and Review Extension

Multisyllabic Patterns
In order of difficulty: Easy affixes: play-ing Compound words: base-ball Closed syllable words: rab-bit Open syllable words: ba-by Final –e markers: es-cape Vowel digraphs: a-gree Other patterns: cir-cle See also pp for major syllable patterns.

Finally, we get to Phonics!
Phonics, graphophonics, graphophonemics—all the same thing. Breakdown— Graph—means written Phonic—means sound Study of letter-sound relationships How does this differ from phonemic awareness? If you know that there are 3 sounds in cat, then you are phonemically aware. If you know that the first sound /k/ is made by the letter “c”, then that is phonics. Phonics is all about teaching the code—how students can break down words to figure out how to say the word or how to spell the word.

Key Terms to Remember Phoneme Grapheme Individual speech sounds
How many phonemes are in bath? (3) Grapheme Refers to the letter that corresponds to a specific phoneme What graphemes represent the phonemes you heard in bath-- /b/, /ă/, /th/.

Key Terms to Remember Morpheme How many morphemes are in these words?
Smallest unit of meaning--could be a word, a prefix, a suffix, or a root. How many morphemes are in these words? Unladylike un- 'not' lady '(well behaved) female adult human' like 'having the characteristics of' Dogs Dog- animal s-plural marker on nouns Technique One morpheme—technique consists of only one meaningful word part, however it does have two syllables.

Basic Principles of Phonics Instruction
Must be Functional It must teach skills necessary for decoding words. Must be Useful The skills should be ones that students do not already know. Must be Contextual The skills being taught should be related to reading tasks in which students are currently engaged or will soon be engaged.

Consonants There are 25 sounds in English.
Some are spelled with two letters that represent one sound. Digraph—ch, sh, th Some are groups of consonants that represent two or three letter sounds. Clusters—most are composed of l, r, or s with another consonant sound.

Vowels There are 16 vowels sounds in the English language.
This number can vary by dialect. Types of vowel sounds: Short vowel sounds--/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/ Long vowel sounds--/ā/, /ē/, /ī/, /ō/, /ū/

More Vowel Sounds Other vowel sounds— R-controlled vowel sounds—
/aw/--daughter, law, walk /oi/--noise, toy /ŏŏ/--wood, should, push / ōō/--soon, new, prove, group /ow/--tower, south /∂/--above, operation, similar R-controlled vowel sounds— /ar/--far /air/--hair /i(∂)r/--steer, clear, here /∂r/--her, sir, fur /or/--horse, door, tour

Onset and Rimes Onset-the consonant or consonant cluster preceding the rime Rime-vowel, vowels, or consonants that follow the onset Cat C-onset At-rime That Th-onset Refer to pp for a list of major word patterns that can be taught using the idea of onset and rime.

Scope and Sequence Consonants usually presented first.
Fewer spelling options for consonants. Initial letters, which are usually consonants, are best taught first. Skills taught in one grade are usually addressed again in another grade. Use major word patterns. Using decodable texts. Look at S&S on page 214.

Teaching Initial Consonants
Phonics instruction usually begins with initial consonants. Being the first sound in a word makes it easier for students to hear.. Beginning sounds are also usually the first sound to appear in students’ invented spelling. Begin phonics lesson with emphasis on phonemic awareness.

Teaching Final Consonants
Handle the teaching of final consonants in the same way as initial consonants. Final consonants are significant aid in the decoding of printed words, so be sure to not neglect them. You can teach the final sound as you also teach word patterns that use them. /d/ in -ad

Teaching Consonant Clusters
Sometimes called blends Combination of consonants sp- in spot str- in straw It can be difficult for students to separate the sounds (especially for “l” and “r” clusters. Begin with “s” clusters. Introduce a word with the cluster, then also a word with one part of the cluster missing (ex. stick-sick; stand-sand; stink, sink). Ask students what the second word is missing that was present in the first word. Slowly say the word and have students count the sounds (ex. stick).

Teaching Vowel Correspondences
Vowels can be taught in the same way as consonants. The main difference is that the vowels can be spoken in isolation without distorting the sound. Vowels can be taught in isolation or as part of patterns.

Approaches to Teaching Phonics
Analytic Studying sounds within the context of the whole word. Example--/w/ is the sound heard at the beginning of the word wagon. Synthetic Saying a word sound by sound then synthesizing the sounds into words. Example--/k/ /a/ /t/ equals cat.

Analytic Phonics—Steps
Analytic Phonics provides students with opportunities to analyze whole words and break the words down into smaller, manageable parts. Identify a list of words that share a common letter-sound relationship. Say each word aloud to students and pause to let students repeat the word back. Move through each word in the list. Ask students what they notice about the words, such as how the words look or sound alike or different. Through this discussion, lead students into a recognition of the common letter-sound relationship. Help students to identify a generalization about the letter-sound relationship.

Synthetic Phonics—Steps
Synthetic phonics first teaches students letter/sounds, then students practice blending the sounds together to make words. Introduce each letter name to students. Teach the sound that each letter makes. As each letter is written on the board or chart paper then point to the letter, and say the sound that each letter makes. Make a hand motion to indicate blending the sounds together. Continue this process until students can easily recognize the letter and the corresponding sound.

Steps for Teaching-Analytic/Synthetic Combination
Phonemic awareness-introduce sound (ex. /m/, talk about position of mouth when forming the sound (lips are pressed together), call attention to words in a poem or other text that have that sound Letter-sound integration-write the words with that sound on the board-ex. man, moon, milk; discuss with students that these words all have the /m/ sound that is represented by the letter “m” Guided practice-read a story that has this sound, sing a song, read or poem, and/or compose sentences Application-students read selections that contain that sound Writing and spelling-review the formation of the letter “m”, dictate some easy words with this letter/sound. Assessment and reteaching-note whether students are able to apply their knowledge of “m” while reading or writing, review and reteach as necessary

Examples of Centers This next section provides examples of different centers as each is related to a stage of reading.

Emergent Stage Age Level Reading Words Writing Words
Usually around prekindergarten or kindergarten. Reading Words Do not understand that letters in written words have sounds. Limited to reading words from memory—sight word reading. Guess words from context. Will pretend to read text. Writing Words Scribbles, letter-like forms, or random letters that probably do not correspond to a matching letter-sound relationship. Corresponding WTW Spelling Stage: Emergent

Developing Fluency Fluency—the ability to read text accurately and quickly. Two components: Automaticity—recognize words rapidly Accuracy—being able to identify the word Repeated Readings Shared Reading Guided Reading Choral Readings Read Aloud

Example of Phonics Centers
Emergent Stage BINGO BRS Sort PTM Sort Follow the Path Game—BRSPTM CFD Sort 3-Cat Sort 5-Cat Sort From WTW Spelling Stage: Emergent Stage

Beginning Stage Age Level Reading Words
Usually begins around kindergarten or first grade. Reading Words Begin to detect letters in words to some of the sounds they correspond to. May use partial letter cues to identify unfamiliar words. May misread words with similar letters—man for men, this for that, horse for house. May sometimes read words backward as they learn directionality—was for saw. Sight word vocabulary continues to grow. Learn the sounds that correspond to basic consonants—b, d, f, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, z—but not soft sounds of c (/s/) and g (/j/) or hard sounds of c (/k/) and g (/g/). Will finger-point (point to words as they are read) and read aloud slowly word by word.

Beginning Stage Continued
Writing Words Beginning and ending sounds will be represented. Letter names used to spell vowel sounds. Begin to spell phonetically. Most silent letters are omitted. Corresponding WTW Spelling Stage: Letter Name-Alphabetic Stage

Examples of Phonics Centers
Beginning Stage LRS sort—l-blends, r-blends, s-blends ch and th sort—digraphs ch and sh Shopping Game—ch and sh Gruff Drops Troll at the Bridge—r-blend words Corresponding WTW Spelling Stage: Letter Name-Alphabetic Stage

Transitional Stage Age Level Reading Words Writing Words
Usually around Second Grade and can continue through Fourth Grade. Reading Words Begin to learn chunks of words, such as onset, rime, syllables, affixes, and root words, and how these chunks occur in different words. Begin to recognize spelling patterns that occur frequently in words: -it, -at, -in, -an, -and, -all. Sight word vocabulary continues to grow as they begin to store longer words in their memory. Reading words by analogy becomes easier as they begin to recognize spelling patterns in words. Children begin to read with more expression as they develop fluency and ease with reading. Writing Words Practice dividing written words into onset-rime. Practice reading and spelling words by analogy. Corresponding WTW Spelling Stage: Within Word Pattern Stage

Transitional Stage Flip-It—long and short vowel patterns, featuring CVCe Treasure—r-controlled vowel patterns Turkey Feathers—long vowel sound patterns Corresponding WTW Spelling Stage: Within Word Pattern Stage

Intermediate Level Age Level Reading Writing
Also can begin around Second, Third, or Fourth Grade and can continue through eighth grade. Reading Focus at this level is on broader elements of words represented by syllables. Continue to develop fluency and read with expression. Preferred way of reading is probably silent versus oral. May begin to experiment with different types of genres in reading, as they explore which one they like the best. Writing Look at words that represent more complex phonic generalizations, such as adding inflectional endings, prefixes/suffixes, and how and when to do consonant doubling. Help explore vocabulary words by looking at relationships between words. Corresponding WTW Spelling Stage: Syllables and Affixes Stage

Intermediate Stage Freddy, the Hopping, Diving, Jumping Frog—double, do nothing, drop the –e The Apple and the Bushel—differentiate between –el and –le endings Homograph Concentration—using context Corresponding WTW Spelling Stage: Syllables and Affixes Stage

Advanced Stage Reading Words Writing Words Age Level
Can begin around fifth grade and continue into high school. Reading Words Readers have highly developed automaticity and speed in reading familiar and unfamiliar words. Most words they read are already in their sight word vocabulary. Readers have multiple strategies they can use when they come across a word they do not know. Recognition of words is so automatic that the major focus shifts to finding meaning from text. Writing Words Look at words with prefixes and suffixes that are not as common in words, and explore how to know word meaning based on the prefix, suffix, or context the word is used. Explore etymology of words. Corresponding WTW Spelling Stage: Derivational Relations

Examples of Phonics Centers with Vocabulary Connection
Advanced Stage—also known as Derivational Relations Word Sort— -tion or -sion Word Trees Jeopardy Semantic Feature Analysis Combining roots and affixes Corresponding WTW Spelling Stage: Derivational Relations Stage

Chapter 6 Building Vocabulary

What is Vocabulary? Exploring relationships between words
It is more than memorizing definitions for a test on Friday. The average first-grader knows 5,000 to 6,000 words. Approximately 3,000 words are learned each year.

Stages of Word Knowledge
Task One —Learning to read known words. Task Two —Learning new meanings for known words. Task Three —Learning new words that represent known concepts. Task Four —Learning new words that represent new concepts. Task Five —Clarifying and enriching the meanings of known words. Task Six —Moving words for receptive to expressive vocabulary.

Seven Principles of Developing Vocabulary
Build experiential background by providing a variety of rich experiences. Relate vocabulary words to students’ background—the words they already know. Help students explore relationships between words. Develop depth of meaning to help students see the many shades of meaning of words.

Seven Principles of Developing Vocabulary Continued
Provide students with multiple exposures to words. Help create an interest in words. Teach students how to learn new words independently.

Techniques for Teaching Words
Graphic Organizers Semantic maps Pictorial maps and webs SFA Venn Diagrams Dramatization Crossword Puzzles Riddles

Techniques for Teaching Words Continued
Explore Sesquipedalian words—long words. Have a “Word of the Day or Week” focus Labeling Predictions Predict-o-gram Possible sentences Word Sorts

Chapter 7 Comprehension

Comprehension Comprehension is the main purpose of reading.
Reading is the process of constructing meaning from print. Comprehension is a constructive, interactive process involving: The reader The text The context in which the text is read

Schema Theory It is theorized that our knowledge is packaged into units known as schemata. A schema is the organized knowledge that one has about people, places, things, events, and even for how texts work (ex. narrative versus expository texts). Schema can be very broad (ex. a schema for animals) or very narrow (ex. a schema for Siamese Cats)

Situation Models Comprehension can also be thought of as the construction of a mental or situation model. Situation models emphasize the active, constructivist nature of comprehension and the importance of prior knowledge. What is your mental model for expository text? Activating schemata is a part of a situation model. To construct situation models, readers must integrate information from the text with his or her own prior knowledge.

So what? Based on the situation model, you could take three steps to improve comprehension: Build background, Give students material on the appropriate level, and Teach strategies, such as generating questions as they read, to help your students make connections.

Comprehension Strategies
According to a schema-situational model of reading, the reader plays a very active role in constructing an understanding of text. One way the active reader constructs meaning is by using strategies… deliberate, planned procedures designed to help us reach a goal.

12 Top Categories Most Effective for Improving Comprehension
Comprehension monitoring Graphic organizers Listening actively Mental imagery Mnemonic instruction Prior knowledge Question answering Question generation Story structure Summarization Vocabulary instruction Multiple strategy instruction

Comprehension Monitoring--Through teacher modeling, student learn how to identify what does not make sense, how to look back or read ahead in the text to solve a problem, and how to restate a text in their own words. Graphic Organizers--Using diagrams, pictures, or story maps to organize information. This helps students to learn text structures, focus on concepts and relationships between concepts, construct tools to represent text relationships visually, and help to write well-organized summaries. Listening Actively--Listening to someone read and following what is being read can promote active listening. It can increase students’ participation in discussions and encourage more thoughtful response to questions. Mental Imagery--Readers learn how to construct an image that helps them remember the information that is read.

Mnemomic Instruction--Readers use an external memory aid, such as a picture or a concept, to associate it with information in the text. Prior Knowledge--Activation of prior knowledge will help students attend to relevant parts of the text, and they are then able to infer and elaborate to fill in missing or incomplete information. Question Answering--Learning how to answer questions can help students remember what they read, and helps them learn how to use strategies for finding the answers. Question Generation--Instruction in how to generate questions helps increase the amount of information that is remembered, be more accurate in answering questions, and better able to identify the main ideas in a text. Story Structure--Instruction in the who, what, where, when, and why of stories helps students infer causal events in stories, remember more of what was read, and identify elements of story structure.

Summarization--Learning how to summarize makes readers more aware of the structure of a text, and how the ideas in the text are related. They are better able to identify main ideas along with ideas that are related to the main idea. Vocabulary Instruction with Reading Comprehension--Instruction in vocabulary knowledge has the added benefit of enhancing comprehension of text. A strong vocabulary helps students to be better readers and better listeners. Multiple Strategy Instruction--Instruction that shows students how to draw upon two to five strategies is a powerful way to teach reading comprehension. Examples of strategies include rereading, retelling, reviewing, summarizing, generating questions, answering questions, making predictions, deriving word meaning, drawing conclusions. Adapted from Trabasso and Bouchard (2002). Teaching readers how to comprehend text strategically. In C.C. Block and M. Pressley (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices. New York, NY: Guilford.

Examples of Comprehension Strategies
Preparational Strategies Organization Strategies Elaboration Strategies Metacognitive Strategies Previewing Activating prior knowledge Setting purpose and goals Predicting Comprehending the main idea Determining important details Organizing details Sequencing Following directions Summarizing Making inferences Imaging Generating questions Evaluating (critical reading) Regulating Checking Repairing

Preparational Strategies--Used Before Reading
Previewing—also known as surveying Students read the title, headings, introduction, and summary and look at the illustrations to get an overview of the text. Activating Prior Knowledge—through questioning Subject knowledge—school-type knowledge Personal knowledge—their personal experiences outside of school Setting Purpose and Goals Establish a purpose for reading by giving students a question to answer, but also help them learn how to set their own purposes for reading. Help readers learn how to establish an overall goal for reading—for pleasure, to gain information, or to study for a test. Important for all of these strategies is that the teacher serves as a model in how to use them when reading.

Organizational Strategies—Used During and After Reading
Organizational strategies are at the heart of constructing meaning. Constructing the main idea—a summary statement that includes other details in a paragraph or longer piece. Classifying—objects, then words, then sentences Recognizing topic sentences

Determining important details—knowing which details support the main idea Do this by drawing on… Textual clues Text structures Relational terms Repetition of words or concepts Reader’s schemata or background knowledge Beliefs about the author’s purpose

Organizing details—grouping together with common topics Sequencing—in order Following directions—using cue words Summarizing—one of the most effective comprehension strategies of all Teach students how to summarize orally before doing written summaries. Retelling is a a natural way to lead into summarizing. Teach students how to use titles, illustrations, topic sentences, headings, and other textual clues when summarizing.

Elaboration Strategies—During and After Reading
Making inferences Schema-based—depends on prior knowledge The wind howled outside. Text-based—putting together two or more pieces of information in a text “Now, my dears,” said old Mrs. Rabbit one morning, “you may go into the field or down the lane, but don’t go into Mr. McGregor’s garden. Your Father had an accident there. He was put in a pie by Mrs. McGregor.” To make inferences, students must have had access to the information in the text and then be able to recall the information.

Elaboration Strategies—During and After Reading
Imaging—creating sensory representations of items in a text Fosters understanding Promotes retention of information Encourages monitoring for meaning Draw upon auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile imaging. Question Generation Moves the reader from passive observer to active participant Encourages the reader to set purposes for reading Evaluating, or Critical Reading Judging what is read Considering other viewpoints Learning to deal critically with words, statements, and whole sections of text

Monitoring Strategies
Relates to metacognition--Being conscious of one’s mental processes Knowing what one does know, and what one does not know, and knowing what needs to be done to fix it. Regulating The reader guides his/her own reading processes. The reader surveys the material, gets a sense of the organization, sets a purpose, and then chooses and implements an effective strategy.

Monitoring Strategies
Checking Involves noting whether the focus is on important, relevant information and engaging in self-questioning to determine whether goals are being achieved. Repairing The student knows when to take corrective action when comprehension falters. The student knows there is a problem and knows what to do to fix it. Examples— Reread the sentence or paragraph Reading to the end of the page or section Reread the preceding section If important details can not be recalled, then skim back through the material to find important details. Slow down or adjust the reading rate to accommodate the difficulty level of the text. Consult a map, diagram, photo, chart, or illustration to provide clarification of something that is puzzling. Consult an encyclopedia or dictionary to clarify a confusing concept.

Strategy Instruction Works Best When…
Students evidence a need for a strategy. The strategy is taught and applied to a selection. The teacher repeatedly models and explains the strategy. When assessment is based on comprehension of the text and use of the strategy.

Before, During, and After—Processes to Reinforce
Activate Prior Knowledge Preview the text Skimming and scanning Set a purpose for reading Make predictions Maintain an active interaction with the text Identify, analyze, and construct the main idea Determine important details Draw conclusions Make inferences Monitor understanding Generate questions Summarize Draw upon text, illustrations, captions, graphics Build schemata—add new information to existing information Skimming and scannning

Before, During, and After– Activities to Use
Prediction Chart KWL—K and W Anticipation Guide Concept Map Go-Chart Mark-up the text Split-Page Notetaking KWL—L Spider Map Fishbone RAFT Venn Diagram Story Map Sequence; cycle Character Trait Analysis Character Shield Write summary Story Bags Story Pyramids Note: Some activities are listed as being “after reading”, but you might build on the idea of it as part of “before reading”. For example, if students are going to make a story map, then you would review what elements are included on the story map. They might even have a story map that can be used to add notes as part of “during reading”. The actual activity would not be completed until after they have read the story/text.

Social-Constructivist Nature of Comprehension
Learning is a social process. Directions and explanations provided by a more knowledgeable other are internalized by the learner and become part of his/her thinking. Understandings can be enriched through conversations and discussions with others.

Types of Lessons that Scaffold Comprehension Processes
DRA DRTA QtA Reciprocal Teaching QAR Think-Aloud SQ3R Guided Reading

Reciprocal Teaching After reading a text, the teacher and students move through a cycle of: Predicting Question generating Clarifying Summarizing Reciprocal teaching draws on expert scaffolding, cooperative learning, guided learning, and Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development.

Before, During, and After– Reciprocal Teaching
Preview the story Activate background knowledge Discuss key vocabulary they need to know. Establish initial predictions. Read the first 1-2 pages. Revisit the first prediction, then continue a cycle of: Predicting Question generating Clarifying Summarizing Very important!! The teacher provides continuing guidance while also modeling each of the four strategies. The teacher uses prompts and probes as necessary to help guide this process. Discuss the story. Revisit areas that need clarifying. Discuss how to monitor understanding by using these types of strategies.

Questioning the Author (QtA)
The teacher uses six QtA moves: Marking —highlight a student’s comment or idea that is important to the meaning being built Turning Back —turn students’ attention back to the text to get more information Revoicing —help students clearly express what they are attempting to say Modeling —teacher shows how she creates meaning from the text Annotating —fill in missing information Recapping —highlight key points and summarizes

Before, During, and After– QtA
Preview the story Activate background knowledge Discuss key vocabulary they need to know. Establish initial predictions. Read the first 1-2 pages. For each segment of text, model how to: Marking —highlight a student’s comment or idea that is important to the meaning being built Turning Back —turn students’ attention back to the text to get more information Revoicing —help students clearly express what they are attempting to say Modeling —teacher shows how she creates meaning from the text Annotating —fill in missing information Recapping —highlight key points and summarizes Discuss the story. Revisit areas that need clarifying. Discuss how to monitor understanding by using these types of strategies.

Directed Reading and Thinking Activity (DRTA)
Make predictions Read a segment of text Discuss what was read Revisit prediction Make new prediction Continue the cycle by reading the next segment of text

Before, During, and After—DRTA
Preview the story Activate background knowledge Discuss key vocabulary they need to know. Establish initial predictions. Read the first 1-2 pages. Discuss the section that students read. Revisit prediction—ask students if the prediction was correct. If it was not, then discuss what they read that helped them realize this. Address any other areas of confusion Ask other questions that ensure students are constructing meaning as they read. Make a new prediction, then students read the next segment of text. Repeat cycle for each segment. Discuss the story. Revisit areas that need clarifying. Discuss how to monitor understanding by using these types of strategies.

Study Special Features of Words
Homophones—sound alike, but usually spelled differently Greece, grease Homographs—spelled alike, but sound different Bass voice, bass fish Figurative language Idioms Metaphors Similes

Learning How to Learn Words
Words with multiple meanings Morphemic Analysis Morpheme—smallest unit of a word Believe—1 Telegraph—2 Prefixes, Suffixes, Inflectional endings, and Root words Context Clues Dictionary Usage

Most Importantly!!! Provide students with opportunities to read.
Read aloud to your students.

Chapter 10 Reading Literature

Experiencing Literature
A text can be read efferently or aesthetically: Efferent Stance--the focus is on information in the text We can read an essay to learn about the ideas, which would be the efferent stance. Aesthetic--the reader is carried away by the feelings evoked by the text. If we appreciate the biting satire or humor in the essay, then we are reading with an aesthetic stance. Reading is not an either/or proposition. Instead, it is a continuum with the reader moving toward one stance or the other based on his/her expectations or focus.

Experiencing Literature Continued
What is important to remember is that teachers need to have a clear sense of purpose when asking children to read a particular piece. The purpose should fit in with the nature of the piece and the objective for presenting it. When reading a story: The reading is efferent if the focus is on the literal comprehension (ex. who are the characters, what is the setting, etc.). The reading is aesthetic is the reader begins to imagine sounds, sights, and emotions, or if the reader begins to wonder what happens to the characters after the story is over, or if the reader imagines alternate scenarios or endings, or if the reader identifies with the character by wondering how he/she would act in a similar situation.

5 Ways to Elicit Response
Creating a reader response environment—students feel valued and free to respond Preparing to read the literary piece—activating schema, new concepts, and vocabulary words Reading the literary piece-read silently by students Small-group discussion—four or five students in a group for 5-10 minutes Class discussion—extend small group discussion to whole class

Using Response Journal to Encourage Response to Literature
After reading, students write their thoughts and reactions in a reading log. Responses can be open-ended, or they can be prompted.

Literature Discussion Groups
A book discussion shared in a small group setting. Groups meet anywhere from one to two times a week. The teacher models ways to respond in the discussion. The teacher facilitates the discussion between students. Students respond using role sheets, notes on bookmarks, sticky notes to record observations, and respond in logs or journals.

Literature Discussion Groups
4-6 students per group. Students decide which book they want to read. Each group is reading a different book. Use fiction and nonfiction. Could be anywhere from 4-6 literature discussion groups at one time. Roles—discussion director, literary luminary, connector, character captain, artistic adventurer, vocabulary enricher. Students complete response activities that share what they learned about their book.

Envisionments: Four Levels of Questions
Initial Understandings-enables students to share their reactions about a text. Which part of the work stands out in your mind? Developing Interpretations-questions that encourage students to think more deeply about the story. Do you think the main character acted responsibly? Reflecting on personal experience-questions that help students relate to personal knowledge or experience. Have you ever been in a similar type of situation? Evaluating-help students step back and take a critical look at the piece as a work of art. Does this piece remind you of anything else that you read?

Discussion Moves Stating Explaining Agreeing Disagreeing Building
Extending/Following/ Expanding Clarifying Initiating/Opening Inviting Connecting Monitoring Summarizing Including Modeling Prompting Strategy Use Debriefing/Reflecting For chapter activities, copy chart on p. 449 and briefly describe what is found on the chart. Paste the chart to the back of your chapter activities sheet.

Types of Literature Folklore Poetry Chapter Books and Novels
Folktales Myths Tall Tales Poetry Chapter Books and Novels Nonfiction

Analyzing Story Elements
Character Analysis Plot Analysis Semantic Maps Creative Dramas Story Theaters Reader’s Theater

Reading Aloud Teaching method where the teacher reads aloud to the student. Designed to promote enjoyment of reading with children. Can improve students’ attitudes toward reading. Improves listening, vocabulary, and comprehension skills.

Suggestions for Structuring the Read-Aloud Program
Select books that you enjoy. This will shine through when you read to your students. Read aloud at the beginning of the period. Decide ahead of time how much you will read aloud—5-10 minutes. Follow the read-aloud with a discussion about what was read. Read slightly above students’ grade level. Prepare your reading in advance. Note difficult vocabulary that might need to be addressed before you read or as you read.

Voluntary Reading Giving students time to read and choice in what they are reading. Improves students motivation to read. Other names... SSR, USSR, SQUIRT.

Adapted Rules for SSR Each student is involved in reading.
The teacher reads during this time, too. The teacher can also hold conferences with individual students. Books should be chosen before SSR begins. At the beginning of the year, start with five minutes then build up to longer chunks of reading time. Use a timer. NO BOOK REPORTS!

Steps for SSR 1. Determine interests and attitudes.
2. Building the classroom library. 3. Setting up a management system. 4. Teaching students how to select books. 5. Teaching students how to talk about books. 6. Teaching students how to work together. 7. Teaching students to recommend books.

Motivating Readers through Voluntary Reading
Give students an interest inventory at the beginning of the year. Match books to student’s interests. Use the indirect approach—make books available all around the classroom. Pique student’s interest. Use videotapes to preview books.

Motivating Readers Continued
Visit author web sites. Encourage partner reading. Make book recommendations. Give students opportunities to talk about and share books. Use Internet resources to make books available.

The Nature of Literacy and Today’s Students

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