A History of Psychology

A History of Psychology
Chapter one: The study of the History of Psychology

A note before studying history of psychology
Historical facts can change: Several Freud’s document will not be available until the 21th century Bias: History is highly selective and subjective Zeitgeist (the spirit of the time) influences the decision/trend “Internal” (psychology) vs. “external” (socio-cultural, political, or economic context) history Presentism (looking at past events from today’s perspectives) vs. Historicism (placing past events into their actual social and intellectual context)

Approaches to the History of psychology (Wertheimer, 2000)
1. Quasi-chronologies: one trend and then a different trend 2. The Great Schools of Psychology: structuralism, functionalism, Behaviorism, Gestalt Psychology, Psychoanalysis, Humanistic and Cognitive movement 3. Personal or professional autobiographies 4. Major figures in the history of psychology 5. History of organizations 6. History of psychological research

Why study history of psychology
Avoid mistakes Indicate the original ideas, the lines of development The influence of the past helps shape the present …….

I. The Development of Modern Psychology
One of the oldest disciplines Issues first raised in philosophy and theology Can be traced back to 5th B.C. Plato and Aristotle

I. The Development of Modern Psychology
Modern psychology distinct from the old discipline of philosophy A primarily scientific field Applies tools and methods from biology and physiology Relies on controlled observation and experimentation Objectivity and precision are continually sought and refined

Eastern Traditions in Psychology
Similarly, psychology had been philosophical, religious, and moralistic in the eastern culture (e.g., Chinese culture) I-Ching Yin-Yang (balance and harmony within the environment) Confucius A series of practical teaching directed toward morals and politics; the rules of proper conduct in relationships Taoist Philosophy (e.g., Lao-Tze) Book of the Ways and of Virtue: a path to wise living A simple life that is close to nature Living in harmony with environment Buddhism

II. The Relevance of the Past for the Present
History of psychology: common requirement for majors As early as 1911 64% of undergraduate: history of psychology as degree requirement Unique among the sciences in the focus on our history

Graduate training in history of psychology 1969: history of psychology course in graduate training (U of Florida, U of Oklahoma, U of Pennsylvania, $ Texas A&M) Journal and other document: 1965: Journal of the History of the Behavioral Science 1965: Archives of the History of American Psychology (at University of Akron, Ohio)--25,000 books, 3,000 photographs, hundreds of film, etc. 1998: History of Psychology (Div 26 journal)

Formal Organizations APA Division of the History of Psychology (Division 26) founded in 1966 The International Society for the History of the Behavioral and Social Science was founded in 1969

The nature of history of psychology Values diversity within psychology Provides a framework for a coherent picture Values the influence of the past which shape the present History is the most systematic way to integrate the areas and issues in modern psychology Recognize relationships among ideas, theories, and research efforts that make the whole cohesive

III. The Data of History: Reconstructing psychology’s past
How we study history Historiography: The principles, methods, and philosophical issues of historical research Data of science Conduct a laboratory experiment, observe behavior under controlled real-world conditions, take a survey, or calculate correlations…. Can be replicated by other scientists at other time and places Data of history Materials used to reconstruct lives, events, eras Not replicable, conditions not controlled From data fragments

Lost or suppressed data Lost: permanently or temporarily Suppressed: Freud’s materials to be opened in the 21st century (to protect the privacy of Freud’s patients and their family and reputation of Freud and his family) Altered: Self-interest: Freud’s case; Skinner’s youth To protect: Freud’s cocaine use

Data Distorted in Translation Deliberately: Freud’s use of I and it (ego and id) Lack of equivalents b/w languages: Zeitgeist Gestalt By participants carelessly recording the relevant events

Self-serving data Skinner described in his autobiography his rigorous self-discipline as a graduate student. However, he denied later on => consulted other sources. History is dynamic and constantly changes and corrected when new data are reinterpreted or revealed.

IV. External Context in Psychology
Economic opportunity War (WWI and WWII) Prejudice and Discrimination External context in psychology--- Economic opportunity: Because of economic forces, there are many opportunities for psychologists to apply their knowledge and techiques to solving real-world problems. By 1990, there are three times as many psychologists with doctoral degree as there are job opportunities in lab.

IV. External Context in Psychology ---Economic opportunity
From Experimental Psychology to Applied psychology More Ph.D. than job opportunities Established university In Midwest and West and increased teaching job But, psychology is the newest science and received smallest financial support Solving real world problems to get financial support : increased public school enrollments to 700% due to immigrants Actively apply psychology into education, teaching, and learning.

IV. External Context in Psychology ---War (WWI and WWII)
Personnel selection, psychological testing, or engineering psychology---This work demonstrated to the public how useful psychology could be. Psychologist relocated from Europe to the US (because of Nazi menace in 1930s) After witnessing the WWI and WWII, Freud proposed that aggression as a significant motivation force for the human personality Erich Fromm: interested in abnormal behavior

IV. External Context in Psychology ----Prejudice and Discrimination
Discrimination against women: Denied admission to graduate school, excluded from faculty position, lower salaries, encountered barrier to tenure Eleanor Gibson (Visual Cliff): not allow to use graduate students’ library, cafeteria, director’s facility in lab, or take seminars in Freudian psychology at Yale University Eleanor Gibson

IV.External Context in Psychology ----Prejudice and Discrimination
Discrimination against women: James Cattell (mental testing): urging the acceptance of women in psychology 1983: he nominated 2 women for APA membership APA—the 1st scientific society to admit women. Female APA members: 15% ( ), 20% (1938)…. James Cattell

Discrimination against women: Mary Calkins (psychology of selves): APA first female president in 1905 denied her doctorate from Harvard University. She only can be a person to sit-in one class or a guess in the lab. Mary Calkins

Discrimination based on ethic origin Late 1800s: a policy to exclude Jewish professors from faculty position (John Hopkins University and Clark University) 1960s: admissions quotas for Jewish college students Julian Rotter (Internal vs. External Control) : was warned that “Jew simply could not get academic jobs regardless of their credentials” in 1941. Julian Rotter

Maslow was urged by his professor at the University of Wisconsin to change his first name to “something less obviously Jewish”, so that he would have a better chance to obtaining an academic job. Maslow refused to do so. Abraham Maslow

Discrimination based on ethic origin 8 out of 3700 Ph.D in psychology was Black ( ) Kenneth Clark (psychological effects of racial segregation): 1st African American president at APA. Rejected by Cornell U graduate admission because of race, received his doctoral degree from Columbia University in 1940 The Clarks

Mamie Clark (his wife): earned a doctoral degree at Columbia University Could not find the academic job; found a job analyzing data The Clarks’ research on racial identity and self-concept issues for Black children impacts the decision to end racial segregation in public school in 1954.

IV.External Context in Psychology
Recent…Prejudice and Discrimination Few female and minority psychologist were listed in the history of psychology or great psychologists Book: Even the Rat was White (1998) A project of “Great psychologist of color” is conducting by U of Notre Dame (2003) Even the Rat was White

V.Personalistic and Naturalistic theory of scientific history
Personalistic theory: The view that progress and change in scientific history are attributable to the ideas of unique individual; focused on the achievement and contributions of specific individuals. However, often individuals were not recognized during their lifetimes.

Naturatlistic theory The view that progress and change in scientific history are attributable to the Zeitgeist (the spirit or climate of the times), which makes a culture receptive to some ideas by not to others Darwin: his theory developed is because the intellectual climate was ready to accept such a way of explaining the origin of the human species.

Problems? An established theory can determine the ways in which data are organized and analyzed as well as research results permitted to be published or not. Findings oppose current thinking may be rejected by a journal’s editors. John Garcia: challenging the S-R learning theory. Major journals refused to accept his articles. (later, he received the APA’s Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award for his research

VI. Schools of Thought in the evolution of modern psychology.
School of thoughts A group of psychologists who become associated ideologically and sometimes geographically, with the leader of a movement.

VII. Schools of Thoughts
Each school points to the weakness of the old school and offered new definitions, concepts, and research strategies to correct the previous school.

VII. Schools of Thoughts
Structuralism Functionalism Behaviorism Gestalt psychology Psychoanalysis Humanistic psychology Cognitive psychology

Chapter two: Philosophical Influence on Psychology

1.The Spirit of Mechanism (17th-19th century Zeitgeist)
Clocks and mechanical figures Influenced the direction of psychology Mechanism The universe as a great machine Feature of science Observation, experimentation, & measurement Nature Philosophy = physics Newton: the universe is a clock, made by God. It is measurable, predictable, and orderly

II. The Clock Universe Clock as metaphor for mechanism
Determinism and reductionism Automata The calculating engine

II. The Clock Universe Clock as metaphor for mechanism
Available to all levels of society Behaviors are Regular, predictable, precise Harmony and order of the universe

II. The Clock Universe Determinism and reductionism Determinism
Every act is determined by past events. If universe = a clock, then we can predict change because we know the order and regularity of a clock Reductionism Like clock could be understood by reducing them to their basic components to know its functioning Explain phenomena on one level (e.g., complex ideas) in terms of phenomena on another level (e.g., simple ideas)

Automaton figure of a Monk
II. The Clock Universe Automata People as Machine Automata as models for human beings Bodies were like machines made by God Automaton figure of a Monk

II. The Clock Universe– The calculating engine
Charles Babbage ( ) Enrolled at Cambridge U. Knew about math more than faculty Became a mathematic professor at Cambridge Charles Babbage

II. The Clock Universe The calculating engine
Automata: human physical action Calculator: human mental action Babbage invited 300 people to his home to look at his design Called “The difference engine” However, Government withdrew fundingupset

Babbage’s calculating machine
II. The Clock Universe Calculator imitated human mental actions Influence modern computer, human cognitive process, a form of artificial intelligence Babbage’s calculating machine

III. The beginnings of Modern Science
Empiricism The pursuit of knowledge through observation and experimentation Rene Descartes ( ) Applied the idea of the clockwork mechanism to the human body

III. The beginnings of Modern Science
Rene Descartes ( ) Inherited a lot money to travel and intellectual pursuits Poor health Queen in Sweden requested him to teach her philosophy in 1649 However, early morning lessons and cold weather, he died after four months in 1650. Rene Descartes

IV. The contribution of Descartes:
1. The Nature of the Body Body is Matter, Body is like Machine Body is Involuntary Movement

2. Reflect Action theory (S-R) Human behavior is predictable if input are known Impact later on “classical conditioning” phenomena Support from physiology Blood circulation; digestion

3. Localization of functions in brain

4. The Body-Mind Interaction Mind thinks, perceives, and wills Mind provided information about the external world Mind influences and is influenced by the body

5. The Doctrine of Ideas Derived Ideas (from the external source) from the direct application of an external stimulus The sound of bell Innate Ideas (from the internal source) from the mind or consciousness Impact: Gestalt psychology—the principle of organization Depth perception

V. Philosophical Foundations of the New Psychology
European philosophy: foundations of the science of psychology Positivism Materialism Empiricism (major role)

Positivism (August Comte, ) Recognize only natural phenomena or facts that are objectively observable Only knowledge from science was valid Materialism The facts of the universe could be described in physical terms and explained by the properties of matter and energy

Empiricism (major role) How the mind acquires knowledge Attributes all knowledge to experience Knowledge is from sensory experiences and objective observation John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume, David Hartley, James Mill, and John Stuart Mill

Empiricism and Association: Acquiring knowledge through Experience: John Locke (1632-1704)
Studied at Universities in London and Oxford Interested in politics; impacted on American Independence An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) started British empiricism John Locke

1. How the mind acquires knowledge At birth: individuals are blank and clean Individual acquires knowledge through experience and leaning

2. Sensation and Reflection Ideas are the result of reflection and sensations Sensation (impression): sense impressions Reflection (idea): mind operates on the sense impressions to form ideas Combine the sense impresions to form abstractions and other higher-level ideas

3. Simple idea and complex idea Simple idea Can not be analyzed or reduced to even simpler ideas Complex Idea Combining simple ideas Can be analyzed and reduced to simpler ideas

4. The theory of Association Rejected Descartes’ innate ideas Simple ideas may be linked or associated to form complex ideas Association (early) = learning (today)

5. Primary and secondary qualities Primary: objective, exist independently of being experienced. The size and shape of a building Secondary: subjective, exist if experienced (perceived) Color Water: cold, hot, warm

Empiricism and Association: Acquiring knowledge through Experience: George Berkeley (1685-1753)
Born and educated in Ireland An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision (1709) & A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710) Taught at Trinity College in Dublin One school in California named “Berkeley” in honor of him George Berkeley

1. Perception is the only reality Mentalism: all knowledge is a function of mental phenomena and dependent on the perceiving or experiencing person One can only rely on one’s perception of the physical nature of objects Impact the phenomenology of the humanistic school, focus on the individual’s unique experiences

2. The Association of sensations Knowledge: composition of simple idea, held together by association Depth perception: is learned and is the result of the association or synthesis of sensations.

Empiricism and Association: Acquiring knowledge through Experience: David Hume (1711-1776)
If no God, one has no way of knowing 1. Impression and Ideas Impression: like sensation and perceptions Idea: images of impression Both may be simple or complex David Hume

Empiricism and Association: Acquiring knowledge through Experience: David Hume (1711-1776)
2. Law of Association Resemblance (similarity) The more alike two ideas are, the more readily they will be associated Contiguity in time and space The more closely linked two ideas are in time and space, the more readily they will be associated

Empiricism and Association: Acquiring knowledge through Experience: David Hartley (1705-1757)
Was prepared to be a minister, but later turned to medicine Observations on Man, His Frame, His Duty, and His Expectations (association) David Hartley

1 Association by contiguity and repetition Contiguity: explains memory, reasoning, emotion, voluntary and involuntary actions Repetition: the more frequently two ideas occur together, the more readily they will be associated. Infant (no knowledge)Children (rely on sensory experiences and mental connections) -adult (rely on thinking, judging, & reasoning) The first to apply a theory of association to explain all types of mental activities.

2. The influence of mechanism Explain psychological process in terms of mechanical principles and explain their underlying physiological processes Impulses, vibration (human brain and nervous system)

Empiricism and Association: Acquiring knowledge through Experience: James Mill (1773-1836)
Educated at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland Worked at church Was a writer Analysis of the Phenomena of Human Mind James Mill

Empiricism and Association: Acquiring knowledge through Experience: James Mill (1773-1836)
1. The mind as a Machine No place for free will Mind can be studied by it’s elements Mental elements: sensations and ideas Complex ideas solely due to association

Empiricism and Association: Acquiring knowledge through Experience: John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
His father is James Mill Received private tutoring: Greek, Latin, algebra, history, political economy…. John could read Plato in Greek at 3; wrote scholarly paper at 11; master university curriculum at 12; suffered depression by 21. Fell in love with Harriet Taylor Equality of sex John Stuart Mill

Empiricism and Association: Acquiring knowledge through Experience: John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
1. Mental chemistry Mental chemistry: Complex ideas are more than the sum of the simple ideas Creative Synthesis: a combination of mental elements created something greater than or different from the sum of the original elements Argued it is possible to make a scientific study of mind

Criteria for presentation
1. the oral presentation: quality, clarity, and accuracy 2. the effectiveness of the presentation: time management, organization, and presentation style 3. the quality of discussion: the quality of discussion questions, leading discussion, and responding questions 4. the effective use of teaching technology or other equipment.

Time arrangement about 30 minutes
10 minutes for presenting Hock’s study 20 minutes for discussion Please turn in the slides from PowerPoint to me (a hard copy or an electric copy).

Chapter three: Physiological Influence on Psychology

I. The Importance of the Human Observer
A. Measurement errors 1. Maskelyne’s assistant (Kinnebrook): 1795 The time required for a star to pass from one point to another were slower than his own Maskelyne fired Kinnebrook

A. Measurement errors 2. Bessel: the personal equation (differences in observation times among all observers) We must consider the nature of the observer An issue in all the science

B. Locke and Berkeley Had discussed the subjective nature of human perception C. Scientists began to focus on the psychological processed of sensing and perceiving

II. Developments in Early Physiology
A. 1830s physiology 1. became experimentally oriented 2. Johannes Muller ( ) Productive: every 7 weeks 1 paper advocate the use of experimental method : Handbook of the Psychology of Mankind

2. Johannes Muller ( ) The theory of specific energies of nerves Each sensory nerve has its own specific energy consequent research to localize functions within the nervous system to pinpoint sensory receptor mechanisms

Techniques for study the brain 1. Extirpation A technique for determining the function of a given part of an animal’s brain by removing or destroying the resulting behavior change. (Hall and Flourens) 2. Clinical method examination of brain structures to detect damaged areas assumed to be responsible for behavioral conditions that existed while the patient was still alive. (Broca) 3. Electrical Stimulation exploring the cerebral cortex with weak electric current to observe motor responses (Fritsch and Hitzig)

B. Research on brain function 1. Marshall Hall ( ) Scottish physician Observed movement of decapitated animals (Extirpation) Concluded different levels of movement depend on different parts of the nervous system

B. Research on brain function 2. Pierre Flourens ( ) professor of natural history in Paris used extirpation

B. Research on brain function 3. Paul Broca ( ) 1861: the clinical method Broca’s area: speech center

B. Research on brain function 4. Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig 1870: electrical stimulation method stimulation of certain cortical areas results in motor responses Gustav Fritsch Eduard Hitzig

C. Research on Brain Functions: Mapping from the outside 1. Franz Josef Gall ( ) Interested in: the outside of brain Larger brainsmore intelligent? Failed in his attempt to map the brain from outside But, it made possible to localize specific brain functions

D. Research on the nervous system 1. Luigi Gaivani ( ) Suggested nature of nerve impulse is electrical. 2. accepted electrical nature of nerve impulse as fact 3. viewed central nervous system is a switching station

III. The Beginnings of Experimental Psychology
A. Four German physiologists directly responsible for initial application of experimentation to mind Hermann Helmholtz Ernst Weber Gustav Fechner Wilhelm Wundt

Why Germany? 1. German intellectual history experimental physiology established experimental physiology recognized to a unique degree the German temperament adoption of the inductive method ready acceptance of biology as a science

Why Germany? 2. broad definition of science 3. greater opportunities to learn and practice the new techniques 4. a great many universities and the most advanced scientific laboratory equipment

Why Germany? 5. one could earn a living as a research scientist 6. German educational reform principles of academic freedom in research and teaching encouraged growth of universities and faculty positions 7. Results series of discoveries in the science German professors ruled science in Europe

IV. Hermann Helmholtz (1821-1894)
A. Helmholtz’s life 1. born in Potdam, Germany : enrolled at a Berlin medical institute 3. seven years as army surgeon continued to study mathematics and physics published articles

4. faculty member in several universities 5. areas of contribution: physics, physiology, and psychology invented the ophthalmoscope wrote on a diversity of topics indirectly contributed to inventions of the wireless telegraph and radio

B. The contributions of Helmholtz: the neural, vision, and audition 1. first empirical measurement of the rate of conduction of the neural impulse (90 feet/second) 2. reaction times for sensory nerves in humans

B. The contributions of Helmholtz: the neural, vision, and audition 3. revised and extended a theory of color vision 4. research on audition 5. his study of the senses strengthened the experimental approach to the study of psychological problems

V. Ernst Weber (1795-1878) A. his life 1. born in Wittenberg, Germany
: PhD at University of Leipzig : taught anatomy and psychology at Leipzig

V. Ernst Weber (1795-1878) A. his life
4. primary research interest: higher senses of vision and hearing 5. explored new fields: skin senses and muscular sensations 6. of special importance: the application of experimental methods of physiology to problems of psychology

V. Ernst Weber (1795-1878) B. Two-point thresholds
1. The threshold at which two points of stimulation can be distinguished as such 2. first systematic experimental demonstration of the concept of threshold

V. Ernst Weber (1795-1878) C. Just noticeable differences
1. just noticeable difference concept The smallest difference that can be detected between two physical stimuli 2. contribution of muscle sensations to ability to distinguish between weights 3. discrimination depends on the relative difference between and not on the absolute weights of objects

V. Ernst Weber ( ) 4. perception of a stimulus is not directly correlated to the physical stimulus 5. revealed a way to investigate the mind-body relationship 6. demonstrated the usefulness of experimental methods as a means of studying psychological phenomena

VI. Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) A. his life
1. born in southeastern Germany : began medical studies at University of Leipzig 3. attended Weber’s lectures on physiology

VI. Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) A. his life
: appointed professor 5. several years of depression, followed by delusions of grandeur developed the idea of the pleasure principle 6. remained at Leipzig, with at least one scholarly work each year, until his death

VI. Gustav Fechner ( ) B. Mind and body: A quantitative relationship : insight about the law governing the mind-body connection a quantitative relationship between a mental sensation and material stimulus effects of stimulus intensities are relatives to the amount of sensation that already exists

VI. Gustav Fechner ( ) B. Mind and body: A quantitative relationship 2. Fechner proposed two ways to measure sensation A: a stimulus is present or absent, sensed or not sensed B: measure the stimulus intensity at which subjects reported that the sensation first occurs. the absolute threshold: the point of intensity below which no sensation is reported and above which subjects do experience a sensation 3. differential threshold of sensitivity: The point of sensitivity at which the least amount of change in a stimulus gives rise to a change in sensation.

VI. Gustav Fechner ( ) B. Mind and body: A quantitative relationship 4. the number of just notice difference (jnd) can be used as an objective measure of the subjective magnitude of sensation C. 1860: Elements of Psychophysics outstanding original contribution to the development of psychology as a science

VI. Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) D. In brief, Fechner
1. provided the prerequisites for a science 2. precise and elegant techniques of measurement 3. provoked Wundt’s plan for an experimental psychology

VII. The Formal Founding of Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt ( ) 1. started the first laboratory and first journal in experimental psychology 2. viewed Fechner’s work as the first in experimental psychology 3. announced his goal to establish a new discipline 4. Fechner was the originator; Wundt was the agent and promoter

Chapter 4: The New Psychology

The founding father of modern psychology
Who? Gustav Fechner ( ) Wilhelm Wundt ( ) William James ( )

Fechner: originator 1st time demonstrated how to make precise measurements of mental quantities His goal was to understand the relationship between the mental and material world. Gustav Fechner

Wundt: Founder & promoter Established the world’s 1st experimental psychology laboratory, edited the 1st Journal, began experimental psychology as science His goal was to promote psychology as an independent science Wilhelm Wundt

William James First true American psychologist Turn psychology from Europe to the U.S. William James

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) -----His life
1. Childhood was lonely, 1st grades in school were poor, always disliked school 2. Did not get along with classmates, ridiculed by teachers 3. Decided to be a physician to work in science and make a living Wilhelm Wundt

4. Disliked medicine, switched to physiology Student of Johannes Muller Complete his doctorate in 1855 at U. of Heidelberg Lab assistant to Hermann Helmholtz

5. While working in physiology, he thought the study of psychology as an independent, experimental, and scientific discipline. : Contributions to the Theory of Sensory Perception a. described his own original experiments b. offered methods for psychology c. first used the term of “experimental psychology”

: Lectures on the Minds of Men and Animals. A study of Reaction Time Influence cognitive science, dominate experimental psychology in 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s Experiment on Reaction time

8. Offered the first formal course on “physiological psychology” “physiological” = “experimental” 9. Productivity 54,000pages ( ), an output of 2.2 pages per day

: Principles of Physiological Psychology a. his masterpiece b. established psychology as an independent laboratory science c. became the record of psychology research: six editions

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ----The Leipzig years
1. Professor of philosophy at Leipzig: 2. First psychology lab: model for psychology labs everywhere 3. First journal for psychology research a. 1881: Journal of Philosophical Studies b. 1906: new title-Journal of Psychological Studies

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ----The Leipzig years
4. Trained first generation of experimental psychologists 5. Trained several Americans and most of them returned to the US to begin laboratories of their own. 6. Also, his students established laboratories in Italy, Russian, and Japan. 7. He was not himself a laboratory worker even though his faith in laboratory research.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ----Cultural psychology
: wrote on ethics, logic, systematic philosophy : Cultural Psychology The creation of social psychology 3. Concerned with stages of human mental development

4. Focus on language, art myths, social, customs, law, and morals. 5. Divided psychology in two: Experimental Psychology Social Psychology

6. Experimental psychology Simpler mental function such as sensation and perception Must be studied through experimental/laboratory methods. 7. Non-experimental methods higher mental processes such as learning and memory cannot be studies experimentally can be studied using methods of sociology anthropology, social psychology

8. Citations: Cultural Psychology: < 4% Principles of Physiological Psychology: >61% 9. Reasons for the lack interest in cultural psychology Little need to pay attention to developments from Europe Less concern to cultural issues

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ---The study of conscious experience
1. Wundt adapted scientific methods (in nature science) to study psychology 2.Subject matter in Wundt psychology: consciousness studied by the methods of analysis or reduction reduction to its elements active in organizing its contents

3. Voluntarism: The mind has the capacity to organize mental contents into higher-level through process. emphasized the process, not the elements however, recognized the elements Provide only a beginning to understanding psychological processes.

4. Mediate experience: Mediate experience provides information about something other than the elements of that experience E.g., The flower is red; I have a toothache 5. Immediate experience: unbiased by any personal interpretations Our experience of redness or our feeling of discomfort from a toothache

6. Analyze the mind into its elements and its component parts like nature science (chemical elements)

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ---The method of introspection
1. The method of a scientific psychology requires observation of conscious experience 2. Method of observation: Introspection: is the examination of one’s own mental state, “internal perception”, and report on personal thoughts or feelings

4. Its use is derived from physics and physiology Fechner: subjects compared two weights and reported whether one is heavier, lighter, or equal. They were introspecting and reporting on their conscious experiences. 3. Required subjects to complete 10,000 introspective observation before ready to be Wundt’s subjects. 4. Accurate observation and replication

5. Wundt’s four rules and conditions Observers must be able to determine when the process is to be introduced Observers must be in a sate of readiness It must be possible to repeat the observation several times It must be possible to vary the experimental conditions in terms of the controlled manipulation of the stimuli.

6. Required quantitative and objective measurement (e.g., reaction time), not qualitative introspection 7. Used sophisticated equipment for objective measurement

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ---elements of conscious experience
1. Wundt’s three goals for psychology Analyze conscious processes into elements Discover how elements are organized Determine the laws of connection governing the organization of the elements

2. Two elements of conscious experience: Sensations Feelings Both are immediate experience

3. Tridimensioal theory of feelings From Wundt’s own experiences as a subject. Wundt concluded three independent dimensions of feelings: pleasure/displeasure tension/relaxation excitement/depression

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ---Organizing the elements of conscious experience
1. Reality: Whole: tree 2. Lab: report elements of conscious experience: color, shape, or brightness 3. Doctrine of apperception The process of organizing mental elements into a whole. is a creative synthesis. Impacted Gestalt psychology (the whole is different from the sum of its parts)

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ---The fate of Wundt’s psychology in Germany
: psychology: subspecialty in philosophy 2. Some against to separate psychology and philosophy 3. Lack of funds for a separate discipline Government officials did not see the practical value in psychology and were hesitant to provide enough financial support

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ---The fate of Wundt’s psychology in Germany
4. Wundt’s psychology, focusing on organizing the elements of consciousness, was not appropriate for solving real-world problems. 5. Slow develop as a distinct science in Germany : 4 psychologists 1925: 25 psychologists 14 of 23 universities: separate psychology department

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ---Criticisms of Wundtian psychology
1. Criticisms of method of introspection Not objective 2. Focus on conscious experience and avoid soul

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ---Criticisms of Wundtian psychology
3. Not applicable to practical problems 4. Decline of Wundt’s system his personal opinions regarding World War I Wundtian research and writing disappeared in English-speaking world. Wundt’s lab was destroyed during WWII overshadowed by Gestalt psychology (in Germany) and psychoanalysis (in Austria)

Other Developments in German Psychology
Others in England: Charles Darwin: a theory of evolution Francis Galton: a psychology of individual differences Others in Germany Hermann Ebbinghaus ( ) Franz Brentano ( ) Carl Stumpf ( ) Oswald Kulpe ( )

Others in German Psychology ---Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
A. In general 1. Born in Germany in 1850 2. Impacted by Fechner, Elements of Psychophysics 3. using himself as the only subject 4. In 1880, taught at U. of Berlin; was not promoted there (lack of publication). 5. In , accepted a position at U. of Breslau. After 1905, moved to U. of Halle. Hermann Ebbinghaus

B. Research on learning 1. first to apply the experimental method to study higher mental processes (learning and memory) (Wundt thought that higher mental processes is impossible to study experimentally) 2. Study learning was to examine association

B. Research on learning 3. Measuring memory: counting the number of trials and repetitions required to learn the material. (Like Fechner, measuring sensations indirectly through by measuring the stimulus intensity to produce a just noticeable difference in sensation) 4. Recall: through the frequency of associations 5. Provided quantification of learning, memory, recall, and forgetting

C. Research with nonsense syllables 1. Nonsense syllables a. meaningless material is 9 times harder to learn than meaningful material b. found longer material requires more repetitions

2. Most significant a. influence of experimental conditions on human learning and memory. b. quantitative analysis of the data c. finding that time to learn is a function of the number of syllables

D. other contributions to psychology , founded the Journal of Psychology and Physiology of the Sense Organs 2. Emphasized relationship between psychology and physiology 3. Developed a sentence-completion test

D. other contributions to psychology 4. In 1920, The Principles of Psychology; In 1908, A Summery of Psychology. 5. Many of his conclusion about learning and memory remains valid now. He expanded the experimental psychology. 6. More influential than Wundt

Others in German Psychology ----Franz Brentano (1838-1917)
A. Career Was prepared to be a priest 1864, received his degree 1866, taught philosophy at U of Wurzburg 1874, published Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint and moved to U. of Vienna Franz Brentano

Others in German Psycholo ---Franz Brentano (1838-1917)
His students, Carl Stumpf, Sigmund Freud Precursor of Gestalt and humanistic psychology Shared Wundt’s goal: psychology as a science 1874: Psychology From an Empirical Standpoint in direct opposition to Wundt’s view was empirical, not experimental method was observation, not experimentation did not reject experimentation data are from observation and individual experience

Others in German Psychology ---Franz Brentano (1838-1917)
B. Brentono: Act psychology 1. Rejected study of the content of conscious experience 2. subject matter: mental activity 3.experience as activity Wundt: conscious experience 1. Accepted Study the content of conscious experience 2. Subject matter: Mental content 3. Experience as structure

Others in German Psychology ---Franz Brentano (1838-1917)
4. Requires new methods a. acts are not accessible through introspection b. study of mental acts requires empirical observation 5. Relied on systematic observation 6. Two methods: through memory and imagination

Others in German Psychology ----Carl Stumpf (1848-1936)
A. In general 1. Born in medical family 2. Interested in music 3. Studied with Brentano and interested in philosophy and science , received his degree; 1894, taught at U. of Berlin 5. Wundt’s major rival Carl Stumpf

B. Research 1. Perception of space , 1890: Psychology of Tone a. second only to Helmholtz in work on acoustics b. pioneer in psychological study of music

C. Phenomenology 1. Argued primary data for psychology are phenomena 2. Phenomenology: Knowledge based on unbiased description of immediate description of immediate experience at it occurs, not analyzed or reduced to elements.

3. Analysis of experience into elements makes that experience artificial and no longer nature 4. Bitter debate with Wundt re: introspection of tones a. highly trained lab observers (Wundt) b. expert musicians (Stumpf)

D. Other works 1. Founded Berlin Association for Child Psychology 2. Established center of music collection from the world 3. Published a theory of emotions, his idea relevant to contemporary cognitive theory of emotion

Others in German Psychology ---Oswald Kulpe (1862-1915)
A. In general 1. Student and colleague of Wundt 2. “Kind mother” “science as my bride” : Outline of Psychology a. Psychology is the science of the facts of experience b. as dependent on the experiencing person Oswald Kuiilpe

B. Kulpe’s differences with Wundt Kulpe 1. Thought processes should be studied experimentally 2. Developed systematic experimental introspection a. involved performance of a complex task b. subjects gave retrospective report of the cognitive processes experienced during the task Wundt 1. Impossible to experimentally study about high mental process 2. Introspection

B. Kulpe’s differences with Wundt Kulpe 3. Subjective & qualitative 4. Detail 5. Describe the complex mental operations Wundt 3. Objective & quantitative 4. Not detail 5. Reaction time or judgment of weights

B. Kulpe’s differences with Wundt Kulpe 6. Experimenter: active role Directly ask questions of the observers to facilitate the details of their reactions Wundt 6. Experimenter: Limited to presenting the stimulus material and recording results Not intrude on the actual observations

C. imageless thought Kulpe Thought can occur without any sensory or imaginal content Wundt All experience is composed of sensations and images

Chapter 5: Structuralism

Introduction Titchener: Wundt: (experimental psychology)
1. organization of elements 2. through Apperception 3. Mind has the power to organize mental elements voluntarily Titchener: (structuralism) 1. focused on elements 2. through Association 3. Analyze consciousness into its component parts and determine its structure.

Structuralism---- Edward Bradford Titchener(1867-1927)
A. His life: 1. Born in England 2. Attended at Oxford U. a. philosophy and the classics b. research assistant in physiology c. interested in Wundt’s psychology

, studied with Wundt and earned Ph.D at Leipzig 3. Back to Oxford U. and wished to become the English pioneer of Wundt’s psychology. 4. However, his colleagues were skeptical of scientific approach to philosophical issues. Thus, he left England to Cornell U.

5. Cornell University ( ) a established lab, did research, and wrote articles. b. supervised more than 50 doctoral candidates c. directed students’ research topics d. built his system of structuralism e. translated Wundt’s books such as Principles of Physiological Psychology

B. His work 1. His books a. 1896: An Outline of Psychology b. 1898: Primer of Psychology c : Experimental Psychology: A Manual of Lab Practice 1) stimulated growth of lab work in US 2) influenced a generation of experimental psychology 3) popular text, translated in to 5 languages

: Titchener Experimentalists organized; men only. 3. Accepted women in psychology graduate programs a. one-third of his doctoral students were women b. Margaret F. Washburn 1) first woman Ph.D in psychology 2) wrote important book on comparative psychology (The Animal Mind, 1908) 3) first woman psychologist elected to National Academy of Sciences 4) president of the APA

C. the content of conscious experience 1. Subject matter of psychology a. conscious experience b. as that experience is dependent on the person who is actually experiencing it. 2. Dependent on the experiencing individual Other sciences: independent of experiencing persons (e.g., temperature)

3. Consider phenomena in terms of how human observe and experience these phenomena, e.g., light and sound. 4. Stimulus error: Confusing the mental process with the object we are observing. See an apple and describe that object as an apple instead of reporting the elements of color, brightness, and shape they are experiencing.

5. Immediate versus mediate experience Color, brightness, or shape (immediate experience) Other than color, brightness, or shape (mediate experience: interpreting the object)

6. Consciousness: the sum of our experiences as they exist at a given time 7. Mind: the sum of our experiences accumulated over a lifetime

8. Pure science a. only legitimate purpose: to discover the facts (structure) of the mind b. no applied aspects c. only normal adult humans

D. Introspection 1. Self-observation 2. Relied on trained observers reporting the elements of their conscious state 3. Adopted Kulpe’s label, “systematic experimental introspection” Used detailed, qualitative, subjective report of mental activities during the act of introspecting

4. Opposed Wundt’s approach Wundt: synthesis (Whole) Titchener: component parts (Parts) 5. Goal: analysis; to discover the atoms of the mind

6. Mechanist: subjects were “reagents” and were like mechanical recording instruments 7. Proposed an experimental approach to introspective observation in psychology: an experiment is an observations that can be repeated, isolated, and varied

E. Elements of consciousness 1. Defined three essential problems for psychology a. reduce conscious processes to simplest components b. determine laws by which elements were associated c. connect the elements with their physiological conditions

2. Aims: the same as those of the natural sciences 3. Proposed three elementary states of consciousness a. sensations basic element of perception, e.g., sound or smell b. images the element of idea, e.g., memory of past experiences c. affective states the element of emotion, e.g., love, hate, and sadness

4. Discovered 44,500 basic elements of sensation a. each is conscious b. each is distinct from all others c. each could combine with others to form perceptions and ideas

5. characteristics of mental elements A. quality B. intensity C. duration D. clearness 6. Rejected Wundt’s tridimensional theory, suggested only pleasure/displeasure

: a. dropped concept of mental elements b. suggested study of dimensions instead of basic elements 8. Early 1920s a. questioned term structural psychology b. called his approach as “existential psychology” c. considered replacement of introspection with phenomenological approach (i.e., examining experience just as it occurs, without trying to break it down into elements)

III. Criticisms of Structuralism A. Introspection 1. Method of introspection If the mind were capable of observing its own activities, it needs to have two parts. 2. Definition of introspection Difficulty defining exactly what he meant

3. Definition of psychology Animal psychology and child psychology (not psychology) 4. Precise task of trained observer is unclear/unknown a. unreliability within and between subjects b. special vocabulary

5. Introspection is retrospection Artificial 6. Could not explore the unconscious mind

Structuralism---- Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927)
IV. Contributions of Structuralism 1. Subject matter clearly defined 2. Research methods: good science Observation, experimentation, or measurement The most appropriate method for studying conscious experience was self-observation

Structuralism---- Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927)
3. Introspection method is still used in many areas of psychology Clinical reports from patients on personality tests are introspective in nature 4. Impact on cognitive psychology Introspective reports involving cognitive processes such as reasoning 5. Strong base against which others could rebel

A History of Psychology

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