1. UNIVERSITY OF GOTENBURG
URBAN YOUTH LANGUAGE IN KHARTOUM
By Abdel Rahim Hamid Mugaddam

2. Method of Data Collection
 Khartoum, the capital of Sudan, consists of three cities: Khartoum, Odurman, and Khartoum North.
The city has a population mounting to more than eight million coming from different parts of the Sudan.
Khartoum represents the center for Sudan's economy and politics. Almost all of the development projects are well located in the city with all sorts of services (e.g. education, health).
Khartoum hosts more than 12 universities among them is Khartoum University, the most prestigious and historically selective in the entire country. As such, Khartoum attracts people from different regions of the Sudan who look for better living conditions. The eruption of wars in Southern Sudan and the Nuba Mountains together with drought and desertification in Darfur and Korfofan has forced even more people to migrate to the city.

3. Interviews with young individuals belonging to three social categories (Street boys, Regsha drivers, and university students were conducted to collect data for the purpose of this study.
Subjects were carefully selected to represent the three communities which are thought be the most dynamic and highly creative linguistically. Research assistants from Khartoum University students have participated in the survey.

4. Street boys in Khartoum represent a highly organized and tightly closed community.
Regsha drivers are mostly young individuals who are school drop-outs or still pursuing their education at school or university level. Their work venues are the internal streets in Khartoum neighborhoods, especially those areas where public transport facilities such as buses and mini buses are inaccessible.
University students considered the biggest group and the most open to other sectors of the community. Although the students belong to different faculties and departments, they still have much in common. Public lectures, political activities (e.g. corner debates, and demonstrations) are among the factors bringing the students together.

5. 1. Affixation of Arabic suffixes to English words
Table 1. Affixation of Arabic suffixes to English words
Noun
Adjective
Verb
Word
tanshana
Mutanshin
yatanshin
Tension
dabrrasa
Mudabris
yadabris
Depress
tarbeeta
murabid
yarabit
Repeat
banshana
mubanish
yabanish
Bench
tanddasa
Mutanddis
yatanddis
Attendance
Tachyieta
muchayit
yachayit
Cheating
tachwima
Muchawim
yachawim
Chewing
takyiesa
Mukayis
yakayis
Case
lakshara
Mulakshar
yalakshir
lecture
tankasa
Muntakis (Taking a taxi)
Yantakis (To take a taxi)
Taxi
barrkasa
Mubarrkis
Yabarkis (Going to the hostel)
Barracks (Students hostel used to be a barracks)
diyiet
Mudayit
yadayit
Dating

6. 2. Affixation of Arabic prefixes t Arabic nouns and verbs-Street Boys
Exclusive to street boys:
ma- khayee (My brother), khayytee (my sister), Amak (Your uncle)
ta- gamas (gamies-shirt), fanali (fanila-T-shirt)
Murhaati, muffyyag, & mukayyaf Vs. murtaah, faayig, &mutkayif

7. Table 2. Affixation of Arabic prefixes and suffixes to Arabic nouns and verbs
ma-
mu-
ta-
Plural -at
Ma-khayee: my brother
Mufatih: cunning
Ta-gmaas: from 'gamies': shirt
Haffa-at : bread
Ma-khayytee: my sister
Muhambik: (Arabic): From hambukka: balloon: angry
Ta-loos: from 'bantaloon': trousers
Taraa-at: bread
Ma-amak: my uncle
Murhaati (Arabic) From 'marah': cheerfulness: happy
Ta-fnaali: from 'fanila': T-shirt
Dahaaka-at: money
Mufayyag (Arabic) From 'faayig' relaxed: happy
Tarafa-at: money
Muhawi (Arabic): from 'hawa' : air : hungry
Mukanib (Arabic) kanab: bench

8. 3. Borrowing Instances of borrowing proved to be from English:
Students: education
Regsha Drivers media & education
Street Boys: media (Cinema and TV)
University students

9. Table 2. Borrowing Meaning Source Word To repeat the academic year
English 'repeat'
Rebeet
Supplementary/substitute exams
English 'supplementary/substitute
Sub
Food
English 'chewing'
Chooma
Bench
English 'bench'
bensh
A lover companion
English 'body guard'
Boodigad
Notebook for lecture notes
English 'sheet'
Shiet
Internet
English 'Net'
Net
Missed call
English 'missed call'
Misskwl
An appointment with a lover
French 'rendez Vous'
Randivoo
Dancing
English 'DJ' Instrumental music
Dijee
Taking exams as unregistered student
English 'external'
Iksternal
The main campus
English 'center'
Alsantar
The main library
English 'main'
Almain
Lady/wife
English 'dame'
Dama
A girl with huge breasts
Dutch 'Frisian cows'
Firizian
Colleague (Common among leftist &SPLA supporters
English 'comrade'
Kamarad
Lap top
English 'lap top'
Lubayib
Medical report
English 'medical'
Madikal

10. Regsha drivers - Table 3. Borrowing-Regsha Drivers
Meaning
Source
Word
Juice ??
Banj
Banknote of fifty pounds
English 'fifty'
fiftia
Car, a fat woman, lie
English 'machine'
makana
conductor
French 'chauffeur'
shofair
driver
?? 'horse rider'
Joki
A temporary driver
From jockey
mujawik
Of a high quality
English 'super'
suyubar
New wife
Arabic & English 'model'
Akhir modeel
old wife
Japanese car
hiluks
A used car but in a very good condition
English &Arabic 'Customs card'
Kart jamarik
A wife who was married before
English 'second hand'
sakandhand

11. Street boys - Table 4. Borrowing- Regsha Drivers
Meaning
Source
Word
food
English 'chewing'
chooma
Good meat
Joker in paper games
Jookar
Haj Yosif a neighborhood in Khartom (Far from the center)
English 'back' translation for Arabic 'khalf' also means far away
Albaak
Son
English 'son'
San
Banknote of 50 pounds
English 'fifty'
Fifftia
Negro
English 'Nigger'
Nigga
man
English 'man'
Mein
Party (Especially with dancing & singing)
English 'party'
Baarti
music
English 'music'
Mizika
Brand new
English 'card'
Kart
Beautiful girl
English 'Rastafarian'
Dasta

12. 4. Coinage
Most of the new words coined are not based on pre-existing words. Street boys are the main initiators of this phenomenon

13. Table 5. Coinage: invention of totally new word forms
Street Boys
Regsha Drivers
University Students
Injakas (V): died
Granboz (N): teen girls
Hankosh (N): one who belongs to a well off family
Dagaas (V): To make a mistake
Lago (N): girls
Mazamiz (N): those belonging to well off families
Jiyyas : (N) money
Jagga: (N)a middle age woman
Magna (N): tea
Fagdaaki : (N) a thief
Kak (N): jinni
Kanjaalaat (N): money
Jagga : (N)a middle aged woman
Daagis (Adi): got fooled
Khastaka (N): uselessness
Kaddala: (N) a thief
Oho (Adj): idiot
Shirteet (N): money
Sheega: rotten meat
Shifit: naughty
Shifit (adj): naughty
Shirteet (N): Money
Latta (Adj): drunk
Mukhastik (adj) : useless
Mog (adj) Fat
Mukawik (Adj):
Shifit (adj):
naughty

14. 2. Phonological manipulation
The only salient phonological manipulation that occurs in youth language in Khartoum is the process of metathesis. In phonology metathesis referS to a sound change that alters phonemes order in a word.

15. Table 6. Metathesis: street boys
Word
Original form
Meaning
Darfa
farda
Friend
Loof
fool
Bean
Gamas
samak
Fish
Habri
bahri
Bahri ( North)
hasa
saha
Area
jaaha
haaja
Girl
bagartu
ragabtu
His neck
raafa
faara
Mouse (One who knows nothing)
sagad
dagas
Made a mistake

16. Table 7. Metathesis: Regsha Drivers
Word
Original form
Meaning
Majaa?a
Jamaa?a
Group of people
Ratiega
tariega
Way, method
Masih
samih
Good
Rashie?a
Sharie?a
Islamic law
Rahaara
haraara
Temperature
Sakla
Kasala
Kasala, a town in
Samalan
Masalan
For example
Lakaam
Kalaam
Speech
Rahif
Harif
Letter
Yalogo
Yagolo
They say
Nushu
Shunu
What

17. Table 8. Metathesis: University students
Word
Original form
Meaning
Lataba
Talaba
Students
lakaam
kalaam
speech
Raafaat
Faraat (Mice)
Those who don't know anything
Majaa
jaama
University
jahaa
haaja
Girl
raatiekh
Taariekh
History
arshahu
ashrahu
Explain (Second person plural)
Zok
Koz
Mug (Used to refer to an Islamist)

18. Semantic manipulation
Extension or change of the meaning of words with the purpose of insulting, ridicule, secrecy, exaggeration or fun is a characterizing feature of youth languages.
Semantic processes like metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, and euphemism are used frequently in youth languages.
Metaphor

19. Table 8. Metaphor University students Regsha Drivers Mashror
'Something spread in the sun to get dry'
someone kept waiting for so long
Mukasar (Adj)
'broken'
'one who is in love'
Mubarak (Adj)
from English 'to break'
"one who is in love'
Murakasa (Adj)
'Licensed'
'married woman'
Shakosh (N)
'hammer'
'love break down'
Shamar (N)
'A kind of hot spices'
'News/gossip'
Regsha Drivers
Kharasana
small stones
Beans
Hakkar
old car
An old and unattractive woman
Regshat
Regshas (3 wheel car)
Young girls
Baboor
large machine
a fat sexy woman
Tujoobles
Tubeless
A women who does not put underwear

20. Table 8. Metaphor Street boys Jokar (English) Joker Meat Jarrar
(Arabic) one who pulls things
pickpocket
Musakhin
(Arabic) hot
Broke (Heat and bankruptcy cause anger)
Baboor
Machine
Hash (According to the subjects, while machine is important for cars to function hash is equally important for the brain )
Saargeel
A long worm
train
Farda
one pair of shoes
A close friend

21. Table10. Semantic Manipulation: Metonymy
University students
Laban
'Milk'
'breasts of girls'
Hawa
'storms'
'Problems'
Mustahami
'having had a shower'
Handsome'
alrahaat (N)
'Rests
'Drugs'
Alhakoma (N)
'The government'
'The wife'
DJ (N)
'Musical instrument'
'Concert'
Regsha Drivers
Mufatih
'One who keeps the eyes open's'
'Careful'
Musakin
'hot'
'bankrupt'
?adda
'Bite'
'Food'
Dahaakaat
'Causing laugher/happiness'
'Money'
Street boys
Fajaaga
something that goes on things
'Shoes'
Shaloot (N)
kick
Kalama (N)
Speaker
'mobile'
Algadah (N)
'A huge dish'
'Market'
Jaazaf (N)
'To take the risk'
'To steal something'
Chooma (N)
'From English to chew'

22. Table 11. University students: Onomastic Synecdoche
Manipulated meaning
Original meaning
Word
To keep someone waiting for so long. The first syllable of the word resembles the Arabic word 'Sharra' meaning to spread something in the sun
A famous Sudanese singer
Sharrhabeel
Washing cloths
A famous Arab singer having a video clip in which she appears washing cloths
Nansi ?ajram
Hash (Explanation: the word resembles the Arabic word 'barama' meaning to fold or wrap something (hasheesh cigar is prepared by folding/wrapping the materials).
A famous Sudanese footballer
Bireema
Security (Explanation: amona resembles the word 'amn' meaning security)
Name of a girl
Amona
Ugly girl (The first part of the word 'alshinaawi' resembles the word sheen meaning ugly)
An Egyptian actor
Kamal alshinaawi
In love (Explanation: bakeen resembles the word 'buka' meaning 'crying' manipulated to mean 'in love')
(The Chinese capital)
Bakeen (Arabic)

23. Table 12. Regsha drivers: Onomastic Synecdoche
Manipulated meaning
Original meaning
Word
Breakfast (Explanation the first syllable of the word, fat, resemble the firs part of the Arabic word 'fatoor' meaning breakfast)
Name of a women
Fatna alhaj
Lunch (Explanation: the first syllable resembles the Arabic word 'gadda' meaning lunch)
Place name
gaddambalia
Dinner (Explanation: the first syllable ?sha resembles the Arabic word '?asha' meaning dinner)
A famous Sudanese singer
?asha alfalatia
Dinner(Explanation: the first syllable ?sha resembles the Arabic word '?asha' meaning dinner)
An other form of the name '?asha'
?ashosh
A famous Sudanese physician
?ashmeeg

24. Table 13. Street Boys: Onomastic Synecdoche
To cry or to fall in love with a girl. The first syllable of the word resembles the Arabic word 'baka' meaning to cry.
A famous Sudanese footballer
Bakumba
Hashish (kind of drugs). The word resembles the Arabic word 'barama' meaning to fold or wrap something (hasheesh cigar is prepared by folding/wrapping the materials).
Bireema
Coward (Explanation: the word Jirsa means showing fear in Arabic)
A name of a comedian in TV drama who always complains and fears others
Sayyid jirsa
Refusal: (Explanation: the second part of the word, abba is identical to the Arabic word 'abba' meaning refused)
A town in
Jazera abba
Lazzy: (Explanation: kasala resembles the Arabic word 'kaslan' meaning lazy)
Kasala

25. Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which statements are exaggerated. It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression and is used to create emphasis. Instances of hyperbole have been found intensively in the speech of our selected population.
Table 14 shows how hyperbole is used to create emphasis across the three categories of subjects.

26. Table 14. Semantic Manipulation: Hyperbole
University students
Gadam wargu
'to introduce a new ambassador to a country's president'
'to propose for a girl'
Yaduk
'to destroy'
'To miss a lecture deliberately'
Ma'?aat
'one who pulls the hair out'
'a lecturer who consumes the full time of the lecture'
Kasih
'to crush something'
'To go away'
Itlahas
'To get sucked'
'Died'
Dafar
'lorry'
'a fat woman'
Regsha Drivers
Firizin
'Duch cows'
'Big breasts'
Jaari alshaari?
'going along the road'
'Picking up passengers from the streets
Jarari Noor
'putting on the car's strong lights'
'Sarring'
Jaari hawat
'To suck air'
'Having no income from renting cars'
Street boys
Algadah (N)
'A huge bowel'
'Market'
Taraat
'Wheels'
'Bread'
Sargeel
'A long worm'
'Train'
Hamaam mayit
'Dead pigeons'
'easy'

27. Dysphemism
Dysphemism refers to the usage of an intentionally harsh word or expression instead of a polite one; they are rough opposites of euphemism. “Dysphemism” may be either offensive or merely humorously deprecating.

28. Table 15. Semantic Manipulation: Dysphemism
University students
Kalib
'Dog'
'Faithful'
Dubaana
'Fly'
'Intruder'
Nahla
'Bee'
'Noisy person'
Kilab lahab
'Hell dogs'
'security forces'
Diheeb
Regsha Drivers
Samkara
'maintenance'
'make up'
Sakandhand
'second hand'
'a divorced or widowed woman''
Karkaasa
'Onomatopic: noise in a car'
'Children'
Street boys
Nimity
'a kind of insects'
'Police'
Bunya
'Box from boxing'
Shawal faham
'Sack of charcoal'

29. Table 16. Synonyms: Street Boys
police
Gay
positive
Gay negative
To steal
mobile
happy
money
thief
girls
bread
Passed away
Iror
Kandoora
Abukhadija
Nimiti
Bunyya
Shawalfaham
loohtalij
Ajalati
Gambarji
sagur
?ajala
?ilba
kudyyana
manjaka
Faga
Saban
Jaazaf
kadak
Kalaama
Nadaama
mobail
Murhaati
Mukayif
mufayig
Jiyyas
Tashjiraat
Tarafaat
Sharateet
Dahakaat
Ganzab
Falla
Kaddala
Jarrar
fagdaaki
Lago
Hassas
Jahaat
Hafaat
Taraat
Wadda?
Injakas
Itlahas
Kamash
Gadda
Jarra -noor
Jarra -silik
Inbaram

30. Table 17. Synonyms: Regsha Driver
To go
Car
arrogant
Lie
Money
Died
To steal
Broke
Insane
One who knows what is what
Rakkab -ajlaat
Gaam -tikka
Kabba- jaz
Inbaram
Kasha
itlasha
Hadeeda
Rakaaba
baboor
Rafi? -si?ru
Rafi? -gizaz
Wahma
Jaaka
Jalaksa
Haraka
FalLa
FakKa
Shirteet
Dahakaat
Darahim
bansaleen
Itlahas
Ingarad
Shafatt-hawa
inbaram
Saban
Jaazaf
Faga
kaddak
Musakhin
Jaari-hawa
Jiniyya
Mukawik
Mufawit
Naagish
Taftiha
Mufatih
Wag?a liu
Shifit

31. Table 18. Synonyms: University Students
Word
Hataat (from hatta: to throwsth. away), kasaar (Breaker), dab maktaba (Lizar of libarary),dakhaakh ( Pumper)
Hard working
Sharra, sharrhabeel,,zira?a, shatla, latt?a, sabba
Waiting so long
Hanaakiesh, mazamiz, muratibien
Well off people
Mufatih, taftiha, shifit
One who knows everything
Garza (stabbing),majnona (Mad), shadeeda, lamba (Lamp), faanos(lamp functioning with gasoline), najaada (Oven), baggaga (Flaming), ?azaab (Torture), sharit (cutting), gunbula (bomb), kasaara (breaker , people fall in love with easily), hamaam jadd (True pigeons)
Beautiful girl
Farrad (a pair), darfa (backformation for 'farda'), habba (a grain), bulda (?)
Friend
Baaki (Crying), bakien (Bijiin), baakumba (Name of a person), mukasar (Broken),
In love
Jawaal ( from standard Arabic), ?idda (Equipment), naddama (derived from 'nadama' to talk), kalama (Derived from takalama: to talk)
?aadi (biting), mukhastik (?), mustahami (having washed himself), jaali (Missing), jaaki (derived from Aljaak, name of a person)
Useless
Manjaria (From 'jiraya' used by soldiers to refer to a bag in which they keep food and water), ?adda (Biting), chooma (From English 'Chewing'), sira? (Conflict)
Food
Farash (Butterflies), dahakaat (From 'dahik' : laughter), shirteet (?), kanjalaat (?), oksijeen
Money

32. synonym
Word
Itfakfak (Release), dardig (Roll), itkhaaraj (go out), liz ?ajalatak (Push your wheels),hawina (Let us enjoy some air), adina altarawa (Let us enjoy some fresh air), shatit (Scatter), falfil (?), inkashih (To pour water out), gid alsilik (Go throw the wire fence)
Go/to go
Sissa (?), kudyaana (?), manjaga (fucking), jardal (?), ?ajala (Bicycle)
Gay (negative)
Sagur (eagle), ?ajalati (Bicycle mender), tayyaani (one who works with mud), bita? Tien (One who works with mud), gambarji (?)
Gay (positive)
Gaddad (Griller?), beed (Eggs), kharaam (Griller), tayyara (Plane), saarookh (Rocket)
Boring person
Makaan (Mchine), bita? Makanaat (One who deals with machines), dalab (from 'dalee' a wild fruit), najaar (Carpenter)
A liar
Dahab (losing the way), diheeb (from dahab), siheet (from 'sahw': forgetting), turra (The picture face of the coin), faarra (Mouse)
ignorant
Taram (?), shakash (?), sheen-kaf-sheen, (abbreviation for 'shakash') ?indaha (She has something)
A bad girl
Musadasaat (Pistols), tabanjaat (pistols), rajimaat (bullets), laban (milk), koko (dairy factory)
Breasts of girls

33. synonym
Word
Broke
Falasteen (Palestine), fuloskaab (blank paper), abyad (White), musakhin (Hot)
A good thing
Makksab (wining), manga (Mango), amnga shi (mango like), shadeed(strong), jaamid (Solid)
Lie
Jadd?a (Throw), wahma(lie), harraka (Movement), jaaka (From Aljak, a name)
A safe place
Mataar (Airport), kartoona faadya (Empty box), ?awama (Ferry)
ِ a good guy
?adum(Bone), harbni (Related to war), akhu (Brother), saag?a, (Thunder storm), ?afin (Rotten), farda (Friend)
One who ignores others
Rafi? gazaz (Having the cars windows locked), mushagil hazaz (setting the mobile phone in the vibration position)
Ignorant
Kiysu faadi (Having an empty sack), kurtu habba (unskillful in playing football), ma ?indu rasied (having no credit-mobile )
Mad
Faati satur (Writing in a line and missing another ), barra alshabbaka (Out of coverage), mujawjiw (From jaw: weather one who leads an abstract world), muhatrish (unstable)

34. Which framework?
There are quiet good number of notions developed for the study of language variation and change.

35. Social Identity
Social identity theory holds that individuals' social behavior is a joint function of their affiliation to a certain group identity and their interpretation of the relationship of one's in-group to salient out-group (Tajfel, 1978).
Social identities are taken to be highly abstract representations which must be constructed through social process and over time (Abrams1996).
the primary process by which a positive social identity is constructed is through comparison with other groups (Tajfel & Turner 1986 ).

36. Speech Community
Labov (1972) defines the speech community as a group of speakers who share a set of norms.
members of the speech community share underlying evaluations of the social stylistic significance of the possible variants.
Labov's theory presumes that some members of the speech community are central and others are marginal, and that it is the central members who are of interest.

37. Social networks
A social network is a social structure made of nodes (which are generally individuals or organizations) that are tied by one or more specific types of interdependency, such as values, visions, ideas, business, friendship,kinship, etc,. Social network analysis views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors.
Core membership & peripheral membership
Measuring an individual ties within a network (multiplex & uniplex)
Density of relation is very crucial to learning

38. Community of Practice
An aggregate of people who come together around mutual engagement in an endeavor. Ways of doing things, ways of talking, beliefs, values, power relations- in short, practices- emerge in the course of this mutual endeavor. As a social construct, a Cof P is different from the traditional community, primarily because it is defined simultaneously by its membership and by the practice in which that membership engages. (Eckert & McConnel-Ginet 1992:464)

39. Cofp
The CofP focuses on the practice or activities that indicate membership in a particular group, and its extent. The practice or activities typically involve many aspects of behavior, including global or specific aspects of language structure, discourse, and interaction patterns.
It show how becoming a member of a CofP interacts with the process of gaining control of the discourse appropriate to it.

40. Cofp Preferred:
Cof P is the most suitable framework for the following:
1. Cof P represents an improvement over the speech community in that it addresses itself to both the social and linguistic aspects of the discipline (More complete linguistic descriptions-along with social explanations- of particular social group)
2. Cof P accommodates multiple dimensions of social identity, including both structure and agency, both ideology and identity, both norms and interactions.
3. It provides an avenue for a more complete sociolinguistic investigation of identity

41. Conclusion
The three categories of subjects represent three different CofP
Street boys and Regsha Drivers considered to be marginal following Labov’s classification, appear to have influenced the linguistic behaviour of the other groups (Uni students, and other sectors of the society). are initiators of language variation
Linguistic forms find their way to the other CofP through social net works