1. Chapter 7: Cognition: Thinking, intelligence and language
What does it mean to think? How does thinking work?

2. Do now
1) What does the term cognition mean to you? What does it mean? What is involved with it?
2) What types of things can effect our cognition?

3. Chapter 7.1 How people think: Mental imagery, problem solving and decision making
How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?

4. How people think What is thinking?
Thinking (Cognition): Mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others.
Includes memory, consciousness, decision making and problem solving
Often called a “stream” or “train” of consciousness which is a combination of mental words and images

5. Mental Imagery
Mental Imagery: mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality. One of the tools used in the human thought process.
Like a “mental map” that we take of our surroundings
Examples: Used to help people remember where the car is parked or find their way home or to new places
Mental images are created in stored knowledge area of cortex and sent to the visual cortex and processed like a visual image

6. Concepts
Concepts: Ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events or activities
Concepts allow us to think about objects or events without having to think about all the specific examples of a category (i.e. Fruit or Bird)
Concepts also allow for the identification of new objects and events that may fit the concept.

7. Concept “LEVELS”
Superordinate Concept: The most general form of a type of concept (i/e animal or fruit)
Basic Level Type: An example of a type of concept around which other concepts are organized (i/e dog, cat or pear)
Subordinate Concept: The most specific category of a concept (i/e your pet dog Buddy or the pear in your hand)
Formal Concepts: Concepts that are defined by specific rules or features (i/e to be a square an object must be 2-D and have 4 angles adding up to 360 degrees)
Natural Concepts: Concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world (i/e is a bobsled a vehicle?)

8. Prototypes and schemas
Prototype: An example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept.
Prototypes are the automatic pictures in your head that you associate with higher level concepts (i/e Fruit=Apple)
Prototypes are culturally influenced
People tend to look at examples of a concept and compare them to the prototype
Schemas: generalizations about objects, places, events and people. A common way that people’s thoughts are organized

9. Your Turn: design a prototype
Using what you know about prototype you and a partner are going to design 2 prototypes for common words and concepts.
Before drawing your prototype consider the following factors:
Define the term: What is it? What types of things are included in it
What concepts are included with your terms? How can you best depict all the concepts within your prototype?
Once you have created 2 prototypes we will compare prototypes among the class to see which is the BEST prototype

10. Homework ACE Vocabulary: 7.1
Psychology in the News: Artificial Intelligence pg 269
Answer questions in your notebook!!!

11. Chapter 7.2 Problem solving and decision making
What are the methods people use to solve problems and make decisions, and can a macheine be made to think like a person?

12. Problem solving and decision Making
Problem Solving: Process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
Examples: Figuring out a recipie, understanding a complex mathematical proof, deciding on a college major
There are a variety of ways in which people can approach thinking and problem solving

13. Trial and Error (Mechanical Solutions)
Trial and Error (Mechanical Solution): Problem solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found
Example: Jamie forgets her PIN number for her online banking Website so she continues to try different numbers until she finds one that works
Mechanical solutions can also involve solving by rote (a learned set of rules)

14. Algorithms
Algorithms: Very specific, step-by- step procedures for solving certain types of problems
Algorithims always result in a correct solution
Examples: Mathematical formulas, Alphabetical Order, Rubix Cubes
Algorithims aren’t always practical (trying to guess a pin or a password)

15. Heuristics
Heuristic: An educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as “rule of thumb.”
Example: A student trying to figure out how to format a paper and types “format” into the help feature in the toolbar
Heuristics are NOT always successful unlike algorithms

16. Heuristics (Continued)
Representative Heuristics: categorizing objects by simply assuming that any object (or person) that shares characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category.
Works well for plants, but not for people (stereotypes)
Example: Are all people with dark skin from Africa? Does everyone with red hair have a bad temper?
Other useful heuristics:
Working backwards from the goal, Breaking down a goal into smaller sub-goals, Making diagrams to organize information
Means-end analysis: heuristic in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference

17. Chapter 7.3 Problems with problem solving
Why does problem solving sometimes fail and what is meant by creative thinking?

18. Functional Fixedness
Functional Fixedness: A “brain block” to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions
Example: When you look all over the house for a screwdriver to try and find one, but can’t. Meanwhile there are several objects close by that you could use to tighten a screw (a butter knife, a key, a dime…) but you don’t think about those because tightening screws is not their “normal” function.

19. Mental Set and Confirmation bias
Mental Set: The tendency for people to people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary.
Example: Republicans who only watch Fox News or Democrats who only watch MSNBC.

20. Creativity
Creativity: The process of problem solving by combining ideas or behavior in new ways
Useful for problems that require with coming up with entirely new ways of looking at the probable, unusual and inventive solutions
Also known as “Thinking Outside the Box”

21. Divergent and convergent thinking
Convergent Thinking: The type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer.
Example: Taking a math test, there is only one answer or a multiple choice AP Psychology Test only ONE answer is correct! (Metro kids like THIS kind of thinking)
Divergent thinking: The type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point.
Example: Open ended questions like “How many different uses are there for a pencil?” Or “What would happen if the United States were to ally with Russia?” (Metro kids do NOT like this kind of thinking)
Divergent thinking are better problem solvers!! They are less frustrated by complex and open-ended problems

22. Chapter 7.4 Intelligence
How do psychologists define intelligence and how to the various theories of intelligence differ?

23. Definition of intelligence
Defining intelligence is one of the most controversial topics in the fields of psychology and education
Intelligence: The ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems.
Intelligence determinants tend to vary with culture.

24. Theories of intelligence: Spearman’s G Factor
Spearman (1904) saw intelligence as two different abilities:
G Factor: (General Intelligence): The ability to reason and solve problems
S Factor (Specific Intelligence): The ability to excel in specific areas such as music, business or art
Many people found Spearman’s Theory too simplistic

25. Theories of Intelligence: Gardner’s Multiple intelligences
Gardner (1993b, 1993A) believed that terms such as reason, logic and knowledge should be separated into different aspects of intelligence rather than grouped together.
Gardner believed there are 9 types of intelligences in people: Verbal/Linguistic, Musical, Logical/Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Movement, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist and Existentialist.
Gardner’s theory is popular in education fields , however cognitive psychologists criticize the lack of formal evidence supporting the theory

27. Theories of Intelligence: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Sternberg (1988, 1997) developed a theory that there are 3 types of intelligence
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Theorizes that there are 3 kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative and practical
Analytical Intelligence: “Book Smarts” the ability to break problems down into compontent parts or analysis for problem solving. Measured by intelligence tests/academic achievements.
Creative Intelligence: The ability to deal with new and difference concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems. “Divergent thinkers”
Practical Intelligence: “Street Smarts” The ability to use information to get along in life and become successful.

28. Theories of intelligence: Emotional Intelligence
One of the newer “intelligences” introduced to the fields of psychology and education is Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence – the awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions as well as the ability to be self-motivated, able to feel what others feel, and socially skilled. Viewed as a powerful influence on success in life.

29. Chapter 7.5:measuring intelligence
How is intelligence measured, and how are intelligence tests constructed?

30. Measuring intelligence
Intelligence testing is a relatively new phenomenon (less than years old)
It was pioneered by educators and then refined by psychologists.
Today several tests exist and each have different ways of measuring intelligence

31. Binet’s mental Ability Test
The first official “Intelligence Test” was developed by Alfred Binet to help identify children who were unable to learn as quickly or as well as others so they could be given remedial education
Test distinguished between “fast” and “slow” learners and between children of different age groups
Test developed the idea of a “mental age” or average age at which children could successfully answer a particular level of questions

32. IQ=MA(Mental Age)/CA(Chronological Age) x 100
Stanford-Binet and IQ
Developed by Termen (1916) and William Stern
Stanford-Binet test method compared the chronological age (# of years since birth) with a standardized list from the original Binet test (Compared what children could do to what they should be able to do based on age)
Developed a formula for Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
IQ=MA(Mental Age)/CA(Chronological Age) x 100

33. The Wechsler Tests
David Wechsler (1981, 1990, 1991) devised a series of tests designed specifically for specific age groups.
The Wechsler test was the first to be administered specifically for adults
Versions of the Wechsler Test include:
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV)
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III)

34. Test Construction: Good test, bad test?
Standardization - the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed.
Reliability: The tendency of a test to produce the same scores again each time it is given to the same people
Validity: The degree to which a test actually measures what it is supposed to measure
Deviation IQ scores - a type of intelligence measure that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15

35. IQ Tests and cultural Bias
Cultural bias refers to the tendency of IQ tests to reflect, in language, dialect, and content, the culture of the persons designing the test.
People from the same culture as the test designer may have an unfair advantage.
Culturally fair tests require the use of non-verbal abilities such as mental rotation of objects.

36. Chapter 7.6: individual differences in intelligence
What is mental retardation and what are it’s causes?

37. Mental retardation Mental Retardation has several definitions:
IQ Score must be below 70 or two standard deviation below the mean on the normal curve
The person’s adaptive behavior (independent living skills) is severely below the level appropriate for the persons age
These limitations must be present before 18 years old

38. Developmental Delays
Developmentally Delayed: condition in which a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age. A more acceptable term for mental retardation.
There are 4 levels of Developmental Delay:
Mild: IQ
Moderate: IQ
Severe: IQ
Profound: Below 25 IQ
Causes of Developmental Delay: Several causes including deprived environment, chromosome or genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies.

39. Chapter 7.7: Giftedness
What defines giftedness, and does being intellectually gifted guarantee success in life?

40. Giftedness
Gifted: The 2% of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above
There are many false beliefs about giftedness including that they are weird and socially awkward, physically weak and more likely to suffer from mental illnesses.
Another common gifted stereotype is the “mad scientist” or “evil genius”. Think “Dr. Frankenstein” “Dr. Jekyll” “Lex Luthor”

41. Terman’s Study: Does giftedness ensure success?
Terman conducted a longitudinal study in that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be successful adults for the most part.
Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity because he became too involved in the lives of his participants, even to the point of interfering on their behalf.

42. Chapter 7.8: The nature/nurture controversy regarding intelligence
What is the influence of heredity and environment on the development of intelligence?

43. Twin Studies: Nature vs nurture
Twin studies are a popular way to help determine the genetic influence of intelligence.
Identical twins share 100% of their genetic inheritance, meaning that any differences between them should be caused by environmental difference.
Fraternal twins share 50% of their DNA (no more than other sibings
Genetically identical twins share a .86 correlation in IQ scores on average which means environment must play at least some role in determining intelligence.

44. Video Questions: How does language grow your brain?
1) What did they find when they tasked students to learn a language at a fast pace? How did it compare to people who were learning “something else”?
2)Compare bi-lingual and uni-lingual people based on some of the studies the narrarator provides.
3) Describe the process that occurs when your brain hears a word.
4) How does the process differ for a bilingual or trilingual person?
5) Describe the relationship between language and culture. Provide one example from the video.
6) What languages are easiest to learn as an English Speaker? Which are the most difficult? Why?
7) How can this research help us in fields of education, medicine, psychology etc….?

45. Do Now: Validity or reliability?
Example
Validity or Reliability Issue?
A personality test gives a very different score for the same person when they retake it 6 months later.
An individual takes an IQ test online that measures how long she can hold her breath.
A 5 year old child is diagnosed as developmentally delayed based on his IQ scores, but when she is brought back and given the same test, her scores fall in the above average range. .

46. Do Now: Issues with testing: Validity or reliability?
Example
Validity or Reliability Issue?
A personality test gives a very different score for the same person when they retake it 6 months later.
Reliability: The scores are not consistent over time for the same person
An individual takes an IQ test online that measures how long she can hold her breath.
Validity: Does holding your breath give a very accurate assessment of your IQ.
A 5 year old child is diagnosed as developmentally delayed based on his IQ scores, but when she is brought back and given the same test, her scores fall in the above average range.
Validity AND Reliability: Without reliability a test will also lack validity. The test scores are inconsistent over time, which indicates that the test is not really measuring what it claims to measure since we assume that intelligence is a fairly consistent factor.

47. Ted Talk Questions: The linguistic genius of babies
1) What is meant by the “critical period” in language learning?
2) What occurs during the critical period for sound development (6-8 months)? How does this differ for US and Japanese babies?
3) The narrator claims that babies “take statistics” in developing language? What does this mean? Provide an example.
4) What happens when you expose a baby to a second language during the critical period?
5)How did the results differ when the baby was exposed to a second language through audio or video? What does this suggest about language learning?
6) What is an MEG machiene and how was this machine used in the experiment? What did the results from the MEG show us about language learning?

48. Chapter 7.9: Language
How is language defined, and what are its different elements and structure?

49. Language: What is it?
Language: A system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others
Language allows for people to communicate with each other as well as represent their own internal, mental activity.
Language is a key piece of cognition (thinking)

50. Grammar
Grammar: A system of rules governing the structure and use of a language.
According to Noam Chomsky (2006) humans have an innate ability to understand and produce language through a device called the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
People learn the specific language (English, Spanish, Mandarin etc…) through imitation, reinforcement and shaping.
The complexities of language is wired in the LAD which “listens” to the words and begins to produce these words in patterns/sentences

51. Syntax
Syntax: The system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences.
Example: “John kidnapped the boy” has a different meaning then “John, the kidnapped boy” even though the words are the same

52. Morphemes and Semantics
Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning within a language.
Example: The word playing has two morphemes: play and ing
Morphemes are governed by semantics: the rules for determining the meaning of sentences.
Example: Sentences can have the same semantic meaning with a different syntax
“Johnny hit the ball” and “The ball was hit by Johnny”

53. Phonemes Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language
Example: The “a” sound in car and day have different phonemes
Example: “Th” “Sh” “Au” are also phonemes
Phonemes in different languages are different and remain one of the biggest struggles for people trying to learn new languages

54. Pragmatics
Pragmatics: Aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of the language.
Examples: How to take turns in a conversation, the use of gestures to emphasize a point, the different ways people speak to adults and children or emphasis on syllables in certain words

55. Stages of language development
Stages of Human Language Development:
4 months: Babbling in universal dialects
10 months: Babbling in household language(s)
12 months: One-word stage
2 years: Two word stage (Telegraphic speech)
2 years +: begin forming sentences

56. Video Questions: Does Being Bilingual make you smarter?
1) Before the Video: Do you think being bilingual makes a person smarter? Why or why not? Explain
2) After the Video: Does being bilingual make you smarter? Why or why not? Explain.

57. In Class: Your Turn Create a language Assignment
1) In groups of 2-3 your job will be to create your own written language. You will need to create a unique set of symbols that represent each set of English phonemes and then attempt to answer questions using your new set of symbls
2) You will also work to identify the numbers of phonemes and morphemes in common English words by breaking them down on the back of the page.
3) Timeline: Stages of Language Development
4) Reflection: Is language development more based in nature or nurture? Explain using information from the lecture/videos and readings .

58. Homework
Notes: 7-10: The Relationship between Langauge and Thought (Quiz: Thursday)
Reminders:
AP Test sign up by Wednesday (April 1st CA 8-12)
Extra Credit (Zombie Masks) due March 2nd
Chapter 7 Project (Lesson Plan) due March 2nd

59. Chapter 7.10: The relationship between language and thought
Does language influence the way people think, and are animals capable of learning language?