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Petroleum fuel - Crude oil reservoirs
Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a source rock rich in hydrocarbon material buried deep enough for subterranean heat to cook it into oil, a porous and permeability (fluid)|permeable reservoir rock for it to accumulate in, and a cap rock (seal) or other mechanism that prevents it from escaping to the surface

The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first order breakdown reactions, where hydrocarbons are broken down to oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and oil eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions. The latter set is regularly used in petrochemical plants and Oil refinery|oil refineries.

Wells are drilled into oil reservoirs to extract the crude oil

Green crude 'Algae fuel' or 'algal biofuel' is an alternative to fossil fuel that uses algae as its source of natural deposits

Green crude According to the head of the Algal Biomass Organization, algae fuel can reach price parity with oil in 2018 if granted production tax credits

Green crude - Factors Dry mass factor is the percentage of dry biomass in relation to the fresh biomass; e.g. if the dry mass factor is 5%, one would need of wet algae (algae in the media) to get of dry algae cells.[ Partial mass balance agriculture]. None. Retrieved 15 April 2012.

Green crude - Factors Lipid content is the percentage of oil in relation to the dry biomass needed to get it; e.g

Green crude - Factors Algae requires nutrients, sunlight water to grow, algae thrive on saline, brackish and waste waters

Green crude - Fuels The lipid, or oily part of the algae biomass can then be extracted and converted into biodiesel through a process similar to that used for any other vegetable oil, or converted in a refinery into drop-in replacements for petroleum-based fuels. The algae's carbohydrate content can be fermented into bioethanol and biobutanol.

Green crude - Biodiesel
Aquatic Species Program|The U.S

As they do not have to produce structural compounds such as cellulose for leaves, stems, or roots, and because they can be grown floating in a rich nutritional medium, microalgae can have faster growth rates than terrestrial crops

Studies show that some species of algae can produce up to 60% of their dry weight in the form of oil

Green crude - Biobutanol
Butanol can be made from algae or diatoms using only a solar powered biorefinery

Green crude - Biobutanol
The green waste left over from the algae oil extraction can be used to produce butanol. In addition, it has been shown that macroalgae (seaweeds) can be fermented by Clostridria genus bacteria to butanol and other solvents.Potts, T., J. Du, M. Paul, P. May, R. Beitle, and J. Hestekin, “The Production of Butanol from Jamaica Bay Macro Algae”, Environmental Progress and Sustainable Energy, 31(1): 29-36, April 2012.

Green crude - Biogasoline
Biogasoline is produced from biomass such as algae. Like traditionally produced gasoline, it contains between 6 (hexane) and 12 (dodecane) carbon atoms per molecule and can be used in internal-combustion engines.

Green crude - Methane Methane, the main constituent of natural gas can be produced from algae in various methods, namely Gasification, Pyrolysis and Anaerobic Digestion

Green crude - Ethanol The Algenol system which is being commercialized by BioFields (Renewable and Sustainable Energy)|BioFields in Puerto Libertad (Sonora)|Puerto Libertad, Sonora, Mexico utilizes seawater and industrial exhaust to produce ethanol.

Green crude - Vegetable oil fuel
Algal-oils could potentially be used as vegetable oil fuel.

Green crude - Hydrocracking to traditional transport fuels
Algae can be used to produce 'Vegetable oil refining|green diesel' (also known as renewable diesel, hydro-treated vegetable oil or hydrogen-derived renewable diesel) through a hydrocracking refinery process that breaks molecules down into shorter hydrocarbon chains used in diesel fuel|diesel engines

Green crude - Jet fuel Rising jet fuel prices are putting severe pressure on airline companies,[ More airlines fold as fuel prices soar: IATA]

Green crude - Jet fuel Trials have been carried with aviation biofuel by Air New Zealand, Lufthansa, and Virgin Atlantic Airways|Virgin Airlines.

Green crude - Jet fuel In February 2010, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency announced that the U.S

Green crude - Species Research into algae for the mass-production of oil focuses mainly on microalgae (organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 0.4mm in diameter, including the diatoms and cyanobacteria) as opposed to macroalgae, such as seaweed

Green crude - Species [ Seaweed Biofuels: Production of Biogas and Bioethanol from Brown Macroalgae]. Amazon.com. Retrieved 15 April 2012.

Green crude - Species researchers across various locations worldwide have started investigating the following species for their suitability as a mass oil-producers:[ Algae FAQ][ Bioenergy][ Selection of Optimal Microalgae Species for CO2 Sequestration]

* Dunaliella tertiolecta
Green crude - Species * Dunaliella tertiolecta

* Pleurochrysis carterae (also called CCMP647).
Green crude - Species * Pleurochrysis carterae (also called CCMP647).

Green crude - Species [ Ecogenics Product 2]. Ecogenicsresearchcenter.org. Retrieved 15 April 2012.

* Sargassum, with 10 times the output volume of Gracilaria.
Green crude - Species * Sargassum, with 10 times the output volume of Gracilaria.

Green crude - Species The amount of oil each strain of algae produces varies widely. Note the following microalgae and their various oil yields:

*Ankistrodesmus TR-87: 28–40% dw
Green crude - Species *Ankistrodesmus TR-87: 28–40% dw

*Chlorella protothecoides(autotrophic/ heterothrophic): 15–55% dw
Green crude - Species *Chlorella protothecoides(autotrophic/ heterothrophic): 15–55% dw

*Dunaliella tertiolecta : 36–42%dw
Green crude - Species *Dunaliella tertiolecta : 36–42%dw

*Phaeodactylum tricornutum: 31%dw
Green crude - Species *Phaeodactylum tricornutum: 31%dw

*Thalassiosira pseudonana: (21–31)%dw
Green crude - Species *Thalassiosira pseudonana: (21–31)%dw

*Neochloris oleoabundans: 35–54%dw
Green crude - Species *Neochloris oleoabundans: 35–54%dw

In addition, due to its high growth-rate, Sea lettuce|Ulva
Green crude - Species In addition, due to its high growth-rate, Sea lettuce|Ulva

Green crude - Species [ Seaweed Ulva Photosynthesis and Zero Emissions Power Generation]. Pennenergy.com. Retrieved 15 April has been investigated as a fuel for use in the SOFT cycle, (SOFT stands for Solar Oxygen Fuel Turbine), a closed-cycle power-generation system suitable for use in arid, subtropical regions.

Green crude - Algae cultivation
Algae can produce up to 300 times more oil per unit area than conventional crops such as rapeseed, palms, soybeans, or jatropha. As algae have a harvesting cycle of 1–10 days, their cultivation permits several harvests in a very short time-frame, a strategy differing from that associated with yearly crops (Chisti 2007).

Green crude - Algae cultivation
Algae can grow on land unsuitable for other established crops, for instance: arid land, land with excessively saline soil, and drought-stricken land. This minimizes the issue of taking away pieces of land from the cultivation of food crops (Schenk et al. 2008). Algae can grow 20 to 30 times faster than food crops.

Green crude - Photobioreactors
Most companies pursuing algae as a source of biofuels pump nutrient-rich water through plastic or borosilicate glass tubes (called bioreactors ) that are exposed to sunlight (and so-called photobioreactors or PBR).

Running a PBR is more difficult than using an open pond, and more costly, but may provide a higher level of control and productivity.

Algae farms can also operate on marginal lands, such as in desert areas where the groundwater is saline, rather than utilizing fresh water.

Because algae strains with lower lipid content may grow as much as 30 times faster than those with high lipid content,Becker EW et al (1994). Microalgae: Biotechnology and Microbiology. NY: Cambridge University Press, p.178

the challenges in efficient biodiesel production from algae lie in finding an algal strain with a combination of high lipid-content and fast growth-rate, not too difficult to harvest; and with a cost-effective cultivation system (i.e., type of photobioreactor) best suited to that strain. There is also a need to provide concentrated to increase the rate of production.

Green crude - Closed-loop system
The lack of equipment and structures needed to begin growing algae in large quantities has inhibited widespread mass-production of algae for biofuel production. Maximum use of existing agriculture processes and hardware is the goal.

organisms blown in by the air. The problem for a closed system is finding a cheap source of sterile .

Several experimenters have found the from a smokestack works well for growing algae.

For reasons of economy, some experts think that algae farming for biofuels will have to be done as part of cogeneration, where it can make use of waste heat and help soak up pollution.

Green crude - Open pond Open-pond systems for the most part have been given up for the cultivation of algae with high-oil content.

Green crude - Open pond Briggs, Michael. [ UNH Biodiesel Group (2004)]. Retrieved 26 May 2004.

Green crude - Open pond Many believe that a major flaw of the Aquatic Species Program was the decision to focus their efforts exclusively on open-ponds; this makes the entire effort dependent upon the hardiness of the strain chosen, requiring it to be unnecessarily resilient in order to withstand wide swings in temperature and pH, and competition from invasive algae and bacteria

Green crude - Open pond Some open sewage-ponds trial production has taken place in Marlborough, New Zealand.

Green crude - Fuel production
Turning a wet, green plant into clear, burnable fuel has proven challenging. The algae is typically processed in a series of steps, including removing all the water, which might be 80 percent of the biomass and using solvents to extract energy-rich hydrocarbons from the dried material.

Green crude - High temperature and pressure
An alternative approach employs a continuous process that subjects harvested wet algae to high temperatures and pressuresmdash; (662ºF) and .

Green crude - High temperature and pressure
Products include crude oil, which can be further refined into aviation fuel, gasoline, or diesel fuel. The test process converted between 50 and 70 percent of the algae’s carbon into fuel. Other outputs include clean water, fuel gas and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

Green crude - Nutrients
Nutrients like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), are important for plant growth and are essential parts of fertilizer. Silica and iron, as well as several trace elements, may also be considered important marine nutrients as the lack of one can limit the growth of, or productivity in, an area.

Green crude - Carbon dioxide
Bubbling through algal cultivation systems can greatly increase productivity and yield (up to a saturation point)

Nitrogen is a valuable substrate that can be utilized in algal growth
Green crude - Nitrogen Nitrogen is a valuable substrate that can be utilized in algal growth

Green crude - Wastewater
A possible nutrient source is waste water from the treatment of sewage, agricultural, or flood plain run-off, all currently major pollutants and health risks

Green crude - Wastewater
The utilization of wastewater and ocean water instead of freshwater is strongly advocated due to the continuing depletion of freshwater resources

Green crude - Environmental impact
In comparison with terrestrial-based biofuel crops such as corn or soybeans, microalgal production results in a much less significant land footprint due to the higher oil productivity from the microalgae than all other oil crops

Studies have determined that replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources, such as biofuels, have the capability of reducing emissions by up to 80%

Microalgae production also includes the ability to use saline waste or waste streams as an energy source

Green crude - Economic viability
In today’s economy, algal biofuels have gained much momentum in regards to their ability to potentially supplement our energy needs

In a 2007 report a formula was derived estimating the cost of algal oil in order for it to be a viable substitute to petroleum diesel:

C(algal oil) = 25.9 × 10–3 C(petroleum)

This equation assumes that algal oil has roughly 80% of the caloric energy value of crude petroleum

With current technology available it is estimated that the cost of producing microalgal biomass is $2.95/kg for photobioreactors and $3.80/kg for open-ponds. These estimates assume that carbon dioxide is available at no cost. If the annual biomass production capacity is increased to tonnes, the cost of production per kilogram reduces to roughly $0.47 and $0.60, respectively.

Assuming that the biomass contains 30% oil by weight, the cost of biomass for providing a liter of oil would be approximately $1.40 and $1.81 for photobioreactors and raceways, respectively. Oil recovered from the lower cost biomass produced in photobioreactors is estimated to cost $2.80/L, assuming the recovery process contributes 50% to the cost of the final recovered oil.

If existing algae projects can achieve biodiesel production price targets of less than $1 per gallon, the United States may realize its goal of replacing up to 20% of transport fuels by 2020 by using environmentally and economically sustainable fuels from algae production.

Whereas technical problems, such as harvesting, are being addressed successfully by the industry, the high up-front investment of algae-to-biofuels facilities is seen by many as a major obstacle to the success of this technology

Green crude - Alternative applications
Algae used as a source of biofuels is a relatively newly discovered use, but algae has been used in numerous other applications for many years

Many of the byproducts produced in the processing of microalgae can be used in various applications

Discoveries within the pharmaceutical industry include certain antibiotics and antifungals that have been derived from microalgae

Green crude - Ease of growth
One of the main advantages that using microalgae as the feedstock when compared to more traditional crops is that it can be grown much more easily

Green crude - Impact on food
Many traditional feedstocks for biodiesel, such as corn and palm, are also used as feed for livestock on farms, as well as a valuable source of food for humans

Green crude - Minimization of waste
Growing algae as a source of biofuel has also been shown to have numerous environmental benefits, and has presented itself as a much more environmentally friendly alternative to current biofuels

Green crude - Commercial Viability
Algae biodiesel is still a fairly new technology

Green crude - Stability
The biodiesel produced from the processing of microalgae differs from other forms of biodiesel in the content of polyunsaturated fats. Polyunsaturated fats are known for their ability to retain fluidity at lower temperatures. While this may seem like an advantage in production during the colder temperatures of the winter, the polyunsaturated fats result in lower stability during regular seasonal temperatures.

Green crude - Low throughput
The most efficient microbial fuel synthesis techniques are tens of thousands of times slower than abiotic synthesis.[ Direct Biological Conversion of Electrical Current into Methane by Electromethanogenesis] Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, vol. 43, pp. 3953–3958, Figure 5(A) on p.3956, showing 60 hours per milliliter synthesized in a 600 ml reactor

Green crude - Europe Universities in the United Kingdom which are working on producing oil from algae include: University of Sheffield, University of Glasgow, University of Brighton, University of Cambridge, University College London, Imperial College London, Cranfield University and Newcastle University

Green crude - Europe cmcl innovations and the University of Cambridge are carrying out a detailed design study of a C-FAST[ The C-FAST project | cmcl innovations] (Carbon negative Fuels derived from Algal and Solar Technologies) plant

Green crude - Europe Ukraine plans to produce biofuel using a special type of algae.[ Biodiesel news / Ukraine to produce biofuel of algae]. Biofuels.ru. Retrieved 15 April 2012.

Green crude - United States
Policies in the United States have included a decrease in the subsidies provided by the federal and provincial governments to the oil industry which have usually included $2.84 billion

Green crude - Other Companies such as Sapphire Energy and Bio Solar Cells[ Bio Solar Cells]

Green crude - Other Some commercial interests into large-scale algal-cultivation systems are looking to tie in to existing infrastructures, such as cement factories, coal power plants, or sewage treatment facilities. This approach changes wastes into resources to provide the raw materials, and nutrients, for the system.[ Carbon Dioxide Capture with Algae]. Docstoc.com. Retrieved 15 April 2012.

Green crude - Canada Numerous policies have been put in place since the 1975 oil crisis in order to promote the use of Renewable Fuels in the United States, Canada and Europe

Green crude - Canada BC introduced a 5% ethanol and 5% renewable diesel requirement which was effective by Jan It also introduced a low carbon fuel requirement for 2012 to 2020.

Green crude - Canada Alberta introduced a 5% ethanol and 2% renewable diesel requirement implemented April The province also introduced a minimum 25% GHG emission reduction requirement for qualifying renewable fuels.

Green crude - Canada Saskatchewan implemented a 2% renewable diesel requirement in 2009.O’Connor Don, Canadian Energy Legislation. Canadian Biofuel Policies.(ST) 2 Consultants Inc June, 2011, pp

Green crude - Canada Additionally, in 2006, the Canadian Federal Government announced its commitment to using its purchasing power to encourage the biofuel industry. Section three of the 2006 alternative fuels act stated that when it is economically feasible to do so-75% per cent of all federal bodies and crown corporation will be motor vehicles.

Green crude - Canada The National Research Council of Canada has established research on Algal Carbon Conversion as one of its flagship programs. As part of this program, the NRC made an announcement in May 2013 that they are partnering with Canadian Natural Resources Limited and Pond Biofuels to construct a demonstration-scale algal biorefinery near Bonnyville, Alberta.

Green crude - Proviron Proviron has been working on a new type of reactor (using flat plates) which reduces the cost of algae cultivation

Green crude - Universities
A feasibility study using marine microalgae in a photobioreactor is being done by The International Research Consortium on Continental Margins at the Jacobs University Bremen.

Green crude - Universities
The Department of Environmental Science at Ateneo de Manila University in the Philippines, is working on producing biofuel from a local species of algae.

Green crude - Algae Cluster Project
The European Commission's Algae Cluster Project, funded through the Seventh Framework Programme, is made up of three algae biofuel projects, each looking to design and build a different algae biofuel facility covering 10ha of land. The projects are BIOFAT, All-Gas and InteSusAl.[ ALGAECLUSTER - Algae Cluster From Algae Technologies]

Green crude - Algae Cluster Project
Since various fuels and chemicals can be produced from algae, it has been suggested to investigate the feasibility of various production processes(conventional extraction/separation, hydrothermal liquefaction, gasification and pyrolysis) for application in an integrated algal biorefinery.

Green crude - National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is the U.S

Green crude - The Marine Research station in Ketch Harbour, Nova Scotia
The Marine Research station in Ketch Harbour, Nova Scotia, has been involved in growing algae for 50 years

Green crude - Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering the algae has been used to increase lipid production or growth rates

The enzyme ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase is vital in starch production, but has no connection to lipid synthesis

In 2013 researchers used a “knock-down” of fat-reducing enzymes (multifunctional lipase/phospholipase/acyltransferase) to increase lipids (oils) without compromising growth. The study also introduced an efficient screening process. Antisense-expressing knockdown strains 1A6 and 1B1 contained 2.4- and 3.3-fold higher lipid content during exponential growth, and 4.1- and 3.2-fold higher lipid content after 40 h of silicon starvation.

Green crude - Funding programs
Numerous Funding programs have been created with aims of promoting the use of Renewable Energy

In Europe, the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) is the main instrument for funding research. Similarly, the NER 300 is an unofficial, independent portal dedicated to renewable energy and grid integration projects. Another program includes the horizon 2020 program which will start January 1, and will bring together the framework program and other EC innovation and research funding into a new integrated funding system

The American National Biodiesel Board|NBB's Feedstock Development program is addressing production of algae on the horizon to expand available material for biodiesel in a sustainable manner.[ Food and Fuel]

Green crude - Companies
With algal biofuel being a relatively new alternative to conventional petroleum products, it leaves numerous opportunities for drastic advances in all aspects of the technology

Green crude - Blue Marble Production
Blue Marble Production is a Seattle based company that is dedicated to removing alga from algae-infested water

Green crude - Solazyme Solazyme is one of a handful of companies which is supported by oil companies such as Chevron

Green crude - Solazyme Part of Solazyme's testing, in collaboration with Maersk Line and the US Navy, placed 30 tons of Soladiesel(RD) algae fuel into the 98,000-tonne, 300-meter container ship Maersk Kalmar

Green crude - Diversified Technologies Inc.

Green crude - Diversified Technologies Inc.
Preliminary calculations have shown that utilization of PEF technology would only account for $0.10 per gallon of algae derived biofuel produced

Green crude - Origin Oils Inc.

Green crude - Origin Oils Inc.
This bioreactor also addresses another key issue in algal cell growth; introducing CO2 and nutrients to the algae without disrupting or over-aerating the algae

Green crude - Genifuels
Genifuel Corporation has licensed the high temperature/pressure fuel extraction process and has been working with the team at the lab since The company intends to team with some industrial partners to create a pilot plant using this process to make biofuel in industrial quantities.

Somatosensory - Fine touch and Crude touch
Fine touch, (or discriminative touch), is a sensory modality which allows a subject to sense and localize touch. The form of touch where localization is not possible is known as crude touch. The posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway is the pathway responsible for the sending of fine touch information to the cerebral cortex of the brain.

Crude touch (or non-discriminative touch) is a sensory modality which allows the subject to sense that something has touched them, without being able to localize where they were touched (contrasting fine touch). Its fibres are carried in the spinothalamic tract, unlike the fine touch which is carried in the dorsal column.

As fine touch normally works in parallel to crude touch, a person will be able to localize touch until fibres carrying fine touch (Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway) have been disrupted. Then the subject will feel the touch, but be unable to identify where they were touched.

Crude oil The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oils and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil

Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling
Crude oil Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling

Crude oil The use of fossil fuels such as petroleum can have a negative impact on Earth's biosphere, releasing pollutants and greenhouse gases into the air and damaging ecosystems through events such as oil spills. Concern over the oil depletion|depletion of the earth's non-renewable resource|finite reserves of oil, and the effect this would have on a society dependent on it, is a concept known as peak oil.

The word petroleum comes from for rocks and for oil
Crude oil - Etymology The word petroleum comes from for rocks and for oil

Crude oil - Modern history
In 1847, the process to distill kerosene from petroleum was invented by James Young (Scottish chemist)|James Young. He noticed a natural petroleum seepage in the Riddings colliery at Alfreton, Derbyshire from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a thicker oil suitable for lubricating machinery. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil.

Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named paraffine oil because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.

The production of these oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850

Romania is the first country in the world to have had its annual crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics: 275 tonnes for 1857.[ The History Of Romanian Oil Industry][ PBS: World Events]

110 Williams extracted 1.5 million litres of crude oil by 1860, refining much of it into kerosene lamp oil

Access to oil was and still is a major factor in several military conflicts of the twentieth century, including World War II, during which oil facilities were a major strategic asset and were Oil Campaign chronology of World War II|extensively bombed.Hanson Baldwin, 1959, [ Oil Strategy in World War II], American Petroleum Institute Quarterly – Centennial Issue, pages 10–11

Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil

While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil

The International Energy Agency's (IEA) 2010 World Energy Outlook estimated that conventional crude oil production has peaked and is depleting at 6.8 percent per year

Crude oil - Chemistry Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity.

Crude oil - Chemistry The alkanes, also known as paraffins, are saturation (chemistry)|saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general formula CnH2n+2. They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the mixture.

Crude oil - Chemistry The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are oil refinery|refined into petrol, the ones from nonane (C9H20) to hexadecane (C16H34) into diesel fuel, kerosene and jet fuel

Crude oil - Chemistry The cycloalkanes, also known as naphthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula CnH2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.

Crude oil - Chemistry The aromatic hydrocarbons are degree of unsaturation|unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula CnHn. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are carcinogenic.

Crude oil - Chemistry These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at an oil refinery to produce petrol, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane), widely used in petrol, has a chemical formula of C8H18 and it reacts with oxygen exothermically:

Crude oil - Chemistry The number of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined in laboratory

Crude oil - Chemistry Incomplete combustion of petroleum or petrol results in production of toxic byproducts. Too little oxygen results in carbon monoxide. Due to the high temperatures and high pressures involved, exhaust gases from petrol combustion in car engines usually include nitrogen oxides which are responsible for creation of photochemical smog.

Crude oil - Formation Petroleum is a fossil fuel derived from ancient fossilized organic materials, such as zooplankton and algae

Crude oil - Formation There were certain warm nutrient-rich environments such as the Gulf of Mexico and the ancient Tethys Sea where the large amounts of organic material falling to the ocean floor exceeded the rate at which it could decompose. This resulted in large masses of organic material being buried under subsequent deposits such as shale formed from mud. This massive organic deposit later became heated and transformed under pressure into oil.

Crude oil - Formation Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms as an oil window—below the minimum temperature oil remains trapped in the form of kerogen, and above the maximum temperature the oil is converted to natural gas through the process of thermal cracking. Sometimes, oil formed at extreme depths may migrate and become trapped at a much shallower level. The Athabasca Oil Sands are one example of this.

Crude oil - Formation An alternative mechanism was proposed by Russian scientists in the mid-1850s, the Abiogenic petroleum origin, but this is contradicted by the geological and geochemical evidence.

Crude oil - Petroleum industry
The petroleum industry is involved in the global processes of Hydrocarbon exploration|exploration, Extraction of petroleum|extraction, Oil refinery|refining, Petroleum transport|transporting (often with oil tankers and Pipeline transport|pipelines), and marketing petroleum products

Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrialized civilization itself, and thus is a critical concern to many nations

In the US, in the states of Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon and Washington (U.S. state)|Washington, the Western States Petroleum Association (WSPA) represents companies responsible for producing, distributing, refining, transporting and marketing petroleum. This non-profit trade association was founded in 1907, and is the oldest petroleum trade association in the United States.

Crude oil - Shipping For example, in 2010 the shipping cost from the Persian Gulf to the USA was in the range of 20 $/t and the cost of the delivered crude oil around 800 $/t.

Crude oil - Price After the collapse of the OPEC-administered pricing system in 1985, and a short lived experiment with netback pricing, oil-exporting countries adopted a market-linked pricing mechanism.Mabro (2006), p First adopted by PEMEX in 1986, market-linked pricing was widely accepted, and by 1988 became and still is the main method for pricing crude oil in international trade. The current reference, or pricing markers, are Brent Crude|Brent, West Texas Intermediate|WTI, and Dubai Crude|Dubai/Oman.

Crude oil - Uses The chemical structure of petroleum is Heterogeneity|heterogeneous, composed of hydrocarbon chains of different lengths. Because of this, petroleum may be taken to oil refinery|oil refineries and the hydrocarbon chemicals separated by distillation and treated by other chemical processes, to be used for a variety of purposes. See Petroleum products.

Crude oil - Fuels The most common Fractional distillation|distillation fractions of petroleum are fuels.

Crude oil - Fuels Fuels include (by increasing boiling temperature range):Speight (1999), p. 543.

Crude oil - Other derivatives
Certain types of resultant hydrocarbons may be mixed with other non-hydrocarbons, to create other end products:

* Alkenes (olefins) which can be manufactured into plastics or other compounds

* Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and Grease (lubricant)|greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as required).

* Wax, used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others.

* Sulfur or Sulfuric acid. These are useful industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared as the acid precursor oleum, a byproduct of Hydrodesulfurization|sulfur removal from fuels.

* Petroleum coke, used in speciality carbon products or as solid fuel.

* Aromatic petrochemicals to be used as precursors in other chemical production.

Crude oil - Agriculture
Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. Nearly all pesticides and many fertilizers are made from oil.[ World oil supplies are set to run out faster than expected, warn scientists]. The Independent. June 14, 2007.

Crude oil - Consumption
According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimate for 2011, the world consumes million barrels of oil each day.

This table orders the amount of petroleum consumed in 2011 in thousand Barrel (unit)|barrels (1000 bbl) per day and in thousand cubic metres (1000 m3) per day:U.S

Source: [ US Energy Information Administration]

1 Peak oil|peak production of oil already passed in this state

2 This country is not a major oil producer

Crude oil - Production In petroleum industry parlance, production refers to the quantity of crude extracted from reserves, not the literal creation of the product.

Crude oil - Production Source: [ U.S. Energy Information Administration]

1 Peak production of conventional oil already passed in this state
Crude oil - Production 1 Peak production of conventional oil already passed in this state

Crude oil - Production 2 Although Canada's conventional oil production is declining, its total oil production is increasing as oil sands production grows. When oil sands are included, Canada has the world's second largest oil reserves after Saudi Arabia.

Crude oil - Production 3 Trinidad and Tobago has the worlds third largest pitch lake situated La Brea south Trinidad

Crude oil - Production 4 Though still a member, Iraq has not been included in production figures since 1998

Crude oil - Production In 2013, the United States will produce an average of 11.4 million barrels a day, which would make it the second largest producer of hydrocarbons, and is expected to overtake Saudi Arabia before 2020.

Crude oil - Export In order of net exports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand Barrel (unit)|bbl/Day|d and thousand m³/d:

Crude oil - Export Source: [ US Energy Information Administration]

1 Peak oil|peak production already passed in this state
Crude oil - Export 1 Peak oil|peak production already passed in this state

Crude oil - Export 2 Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact it is both an importer and exporter of crude oil, and refines large amounts of oil for the U.S. market. It is the leading source of U.S. imports of oil and products, averaging in August 2007.

Crude oil - Export [

Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately .
Crude oil - Export Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately .

Crude oil - Import In order of net imports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand Barrel (unit)|bbl/Day|d and thousand m³/d:

Crude oil - Import 1 Peak oil|peak production of oil expected in 2020[ AEO2014 EARLY RELEASE OVERVIEW] [ Early report] US Energy Information Administration, December Accessed: December Quote: Domestic production of crude oil .. increases sharply .. is expected to level off and then slowly decline after 2020

2 Major oil producer whose production is still increasing
Crude oil - Import 2 Major oil producer whose production is still increasing

Crude oil - Environmental effects
Because petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in the environment need not be the result of human causes such as accidents and routine activities (seismology|seismic exploration, Boring (earth)|drilling, extraction, refining and combustion)

Crude oil - Extraction Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool)

Crude oil - Oil spills Crude oil and refined fuel Oil spill|spills from tanker (ship)|tanker ship accidents have damaged natural ecosystems in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galapagos Islands, France and many List of oil spills|other places.

Crude oil - Oil spills The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Bp oil spill|Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill

Crude oil - Oil spills Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

Crude oil - Oil spills Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower. The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on wreck produced poor results;Torrey Canyon oil spill|Torrey Canyon bombing by the Navy and RAF modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the Prestige oil spill or the Erika (tanker)|Erika oil spill.

Crude oil - Oil spills Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen heterocylic compounds, such as pyridine, picoline, and quinoline are reported as contaminants associated with crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been found at legacy wood treatment sites

Crude oil - Whales James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for whale oil, thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat whaling.[ How Capitalism Saved the Whales] by James S. Robbins, The Freeman, August, 1992.

Crude oil - Alternatives to using oil in industry
Biological feedstocks do exist for industrial uses such as Bioplastic production.[ Bioprocessing] Seattle Times (2003)

Crude oil - Future of petroleum production
Consumption in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been abundantly pushed by automobile growth; the 1980s oil glut|1985–2003 oil glut even fueled the sales of low economy vehicles in OECD countries

Production will also face an increasingly complex situation; while OPEC countries still have large reserves at low production prices, newly found reservoirs often lead to higher prices; offshore giants such as Tupi oil field|Tupi, Guara and Tiber oilfield|Tiber demand high investments and ever-increasing technological abilities

Crude oil - Peak oil Peak oil is the projection that future petroleum production (whether for individual oil wells, entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide production) will eventually peak and then decline at a similar rate to the rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted. The peak of oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year has surpassed oil discoveries every year since 1980.

Crude oil - Peak oil Marion King Hubbert|Hubbert applied his theory to accurately predict the peak of U.S. oil production at a date between 1966 and This prediction was based on data available at the time of his publication in In the same paper, Hubbert predicts world peak oil in half a century after his publication, which would be 2006.

Crude oil - Peak oil It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of knowledge and/or transparency in accounting of global oil reserves

Crude oil - Peak oil The International Energy Agency (IEA) said in 2010 that production of conventional crude oil had peaked in 2006 at 70 MBBL/d, then flattened at 68 or 69 thereafter.[ Is 'Peak Oil' Behind Us?]

Oil refinery - The crude oil distillation unit
The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries. The CDU distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions of different boiling ranges, each of which are then processed further in the other refinery processing units. The CDU is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation unit because it operates at slightly above atmospheric pressure.

Below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit. The incoming crude oil is preheated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then desalted to remove inorganic salts (primarily sodium chloride).

Following the desalter, the crude oil is further heated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then heated in a fuel-fired furnace (fired heater) to a temperature of about 398°C and routed into the bottom of the distillation unit.

The cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is provided partially by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil and partially by either an air-cooled or water-cooled condenser. Additional heat is removed from the distillation column by a pumparound system as shown in the diagram below.

Each of the sidecuts (i.e., the kerosene, light gas oil and heavy gas oil) is cooled by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil

Japan Crude Cocktail The 'Japan Customs-cleared Crude' (JCC) is the average price of customs-cleared crude oil imports into Japan (formerly the average of the top twenty crude oils by volume) as reported in customs statistics; nicknamed the 'Japanese Crude Cocktail'.

Japan Crude Cocktail It is a commonly used index in long term LNG contracts in Japan, Korea and Taiwan, and replaced the Government Selling Price of crude oil as the standard index.

Japan Crude Cocktail The data to calculate JCC is published by the Japanese government every month. This is the raw and crude oil import prices in yen per kilolitre, the dollar yen exchange rate and the total Japanese imports of all commodities for the month.

JCC prices are available from the Petroleum Association of Japan.
Japan Crude Cocktail JCC prices are available from the Petroleum Association of Japan.

Indonesian Crude Price
'Indonesian Crude Price', or 'ICP', is a price index for Petroleum|crude oil from Indonesia.

The ICP is determined by Pertamina, based on moving average spot price of a basket of five internationally traded crudes:

In some cases ICP is used as index in long term LNG contracts in East Asia.

Crude oil - Unconventional oil reservoirs
The lighter fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first, resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude oil, called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in Venezuela

Crude oil - Unconventional oil reservoirs
The kerogen in the rock can be converted into crude oil using heat and pressure to simulate natural processes

Crude oil - Non-producing consumers
Source: [ CIA World Factbook]

Consumption in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been abundantly pushed by automobile growth; the 1980s oil glut|1985–2003 oil glut even fueled the sales of low economy vehicles in OECD countries

Commodity market - Crude Oil and natural gas
WTI is a grade used as a benchmark (crude oil)|benchmark in oil pricing

From April through October 2012 Brent futures contracts exceeded those for WTI, the longest streak since at least 1995.

Crude oil can be light or Heavy crude oil|heavy. Oil was the first form of energy to be widely traded. Some commodity market speculation is directly related to the stability of certain states, e.g., Iraq, Bahrain, Iran, Venezuela and many others. Most commodities markets are not so tied to the politics of volatile regions.

Brent crude oil is traded in through IntercontinentalExchange (ICE) under trading symbol B

Natural gas is traded through NYMEX a subsidiary of IntercontinentalExchange (ICE) in units of 10,000 mmBTU with the trading symbol of NG. Heating Oil is traded through NYMEX, a subsidiary of IntercontinentalExchange, under trading symbol HO.

Art manifesto - Crude Art Manifesto 1978
Artist Charles Thomson (artist)|Charles Thomson promoted the Crude Art Manifesto 1978.

Art manifesto - Crude Art Manifesto 1978
This was posted in Kent Institute of Art Design|Maidstone Art College by Charles Thomson, then a student at the college

Syncrude Canada 'Syncrude Canada Ltd.' is one of the world's largest producers of synthetic crude oil from oil sands and the largest single source producer in Canada

Syncrude Canada Because of Nexen's subsequent takeover by CNOOC, over 16% of the shares in Syncrude are controlled by State Owned Enterprises (SOE).

Syncrude Canada The ownership board must approve all annual operating budgets and proposed capital spending projects, and are required to provide the funding for said activities based on their ownership share.

Syncrude Canada - History
Syncrude was formed as a research consortium in Construction at the Syncrude site began in 1973, and it officially opened in Starting in 1996, Syncrude has been expanding its operations. Between 1996 and 1999, the original mine was expanded and the plant was debottlenecked, increasing production from per year in 1996 to 81.4 million in The total cost of this stage of expansion was $470 million.

Between 1998 and 2001, a new mine, Aurora, was opened 35km north of the original site, and further debottlenecking was undertaken. Production started in Aurora in July Syncrude's production increased to per year by the end of Total cost for this stage was $1 billion.

A third stage of expansion was undertaken between 2001 and 2006, in which a second train at the Aurora line came online and the Mildred Lake upgrader was expanded. The expansion added to Syncrude's production ( a year assuming this is average). The cost was $8.4 billion, a substantial cost overrun over the original estimate of $5.7 billion.

On April 12, 2010, ConocoPhillips agreed to sell its share to Sinopec, a Chinese state-owned oil company. The sale, for $4.65 billion, was completed on June 25, 2010.

Syncrude Canada - Pollution
Syncrude reduced emitted per barrel produced by 23% from 1990 to 2001.

Syncrude Canada - Oil sands tailings pond water
The problem stems from the hot water process used by Suncor and Syncrude to extract bitumen from the Athabasca Oil Sands which produce large quantities of tailings pond sludge which remains stable for decades

Syncrude also contributes to the industry-funded Joint Oil sands Monitoring Program which was created in 2012 and managed by the federal and Alberta governments.

According to a 2013 article published in Environmental Science: Processes Impacts, the tailings ponds contain toxic chemicals such as naphthenic acids (NAs) and process chemicals (e.g., Organosulfate|alkyl sulphates, Quaternary ammonium cation|quaternary ammonium compounds, and Alkylphenol|alkylphenol ethoxylates)

In an article accepted for publication in Environmental Science and Technology journal in January 2014, Environment Canada's Richard Frank and his team of scientists confirmed that, using new technology, they were able to Chemical similarity|fingerprint the mix of groundwater chemicals in the area proving that oil sands tailings pond water had leached into groundwater and the Athabaska River

Syncrude Canada - Greenpeace lawsuit
In August 2008, Syncrude Canada filed a lawsuit against Greenpeace Canada for $120,000, plus costs, after 11 Greenpeace activists went onto the company's Aurora North oil sands site July 24, 2008, to unfurl anti-oil sands banners and unsuccessfully block a tailings pipe

Syncrude Canada - Greenpeace lawsuit
Greenpeace chose the Syncrude site for the protest because in April 2008, 1600 migrating ducks died after landing on a tailings pond at the site (Syncrude was fined $3 million.)Jeremy Klaszus, [ Syncrude sues greenpeace for $120,000], Fast Forward Weekly, August 28, 2008

Syncrude Canada - Keyano College
In 2004, Syncrude announced an $800,000 multi-year donation, $500,000 of which was dedicated to the new community [ Syncrude Sport and Wellness Centre] and the balance to [ Keyano Theatre’s] Arts Alive Series and student scholarships. In 2005, Syncrude invested another $200,000 and took the naming rights to the [ Syncrude Sports and Wellness Centre] at Keyano College.

Commodity Futures Trading Commission - Crude oil derivatives and futures: speculation or fundamentals Some argued that crude oil market fundamentals drives the price, not the speculative market

Commodity Futures Trading Commission - Crude oil derivatives and futures: speculation or fundamentals On April 24, 2010 Reuters reported that of the 40 major figures in the oil industry, including traders and analysts at some of the largest banks, trading houses and oil companies interviewed, the vast majority (73 percent) thought increased speculation boosted prices beyond what supply and demand fundamentals dictated.

Commodity Futures Trading Commission - Crude oil derivatives and futures: speculation or fundamentals “It’s unprecedented for the CFTC to say that they are in the midst of an investigation.” Michael Haigh, head of U.S. commodities research in New York at Societe Generale SA, and a former CFTC associate chief economist, said in an interview. “They may be under pressure from Congress to look at this market given the high prices.”

Commodity Futures Trading Commission - Crude oil derivatives and futures: speculation or fundamentals Since 1991 the CFTC has given secret exemptions from hedging regulations to 19 major banks and market participants, allowing them to accumulate essentially unlimited positions.

Commodity Futures Trading Commission - Crude oil derivatives and futures: speculation or fundamentals These exemptions came to light only as the 2008 financial crisis unfolded and Congress requested information on market participants. A trader or bank granted an exemption as a bona-fide hedger can affect the price of a commodity without being either its producer or consumer. U.S. President Barack Obama argued in 2008 that loopholes in CFTC regulations contributed to wikt:skyrocketing|skyrocketing prices and lack of transparency on oil markets.

Commodity Futures Trading Commission - Crude oil derivatives and futures: speculation or fundamentals On June 25, 2008 Speaker Pelosi sent a letter to President Bush calling on him to direct the CFTC to use its emergency powers to take immediate action to curb excessive speculation in energy markets, and to investigate all energy contracts and that despite growing reports of excessive speculation in energy markets, the CFTC refused to take actions they have taken in the past

Commodity Futures Trading Commission - Crude oil derivatives and futures: speculation or fundamentals By April 2010, the CFTC began to rein in speculation in energy and commodity trading, especially oil, and proposed limiting the number of futures contracts financial players can hold at any one time.

Crude oil The use of fossil fuels such as petroleum has a negative impact on Earth's biosphere, releasing pollutants and greenhouse gases into the air and damaging ecosystems through events such as oil spills. Concern over the oil depletion|depletion of the earth's non-renewable resource|finite reserves of oil, and the effect this would have on a society dependent on it, is a concept known as peak oil.

Crude oil - Early history
Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. The rise in importance was due to the invention of the internal combustion engine, the rise in commercial aviation, and the importance of petroleum to industrial organic chemistry, particularly the synthesis of plastics, fertilizers, solvents, adhesives and pesticides.

More than 4000 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was used in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on Zacynthus

Crude oil - Tarballs A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with tar, which is typically derived from pine trees rather than petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean

Crude oil - Alternatives to petroleum
In the United States in 2007 about 70 percent of petroleum was used for transportation (e.g

Crude oil - Peak oil It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of knowledge and/or transparency in accounting of global oil reserves

Chinese coins - Crude Lead Coins
Attributed to the Southern Han/Chu area ( ):

* 'Kai Yuan tong bao' () are based on Tang Dynasty coins. They have a local style with numerous reverse inscriptions—apparently series numbers.

There is a very great variety of such coins; some have crescents on the reverse. The Kai character sometimes looks like yong (). Characters and legends often reversed because the incompetent workmen had not mastered the art of engraving in negative to make the moulds. Some specimens have meaningless characters.

'Wu Wu', Wu Wu Wu', Wu Wu Wu Wu', Wu Zhu', and 'Kai Yuan Wu Wu' coins are typical of the hybrid inscriptions formed by combinations of inappropriate characters. They also have series numbers on the reverse.

In 924 it was reported: In the shops and the markets, control of silk and money has resulted in the circulation of small lead coins which we readily find in great quantities; they all come from south of the [Yangtze] river whence the merchants transport them here surreptitiously

Nearly all the coin hoards of this period are of lead coins found in towns, e.g. the Guangfu Road, Guangzhou hoard of 2,000 coins. It is clear that most of these coins were made unofficially by the merchants or the people.

Recently a whole lot of inventions, purporting to belong to this series, have come on the market.

Benchmark (crude oil) Energy Intelligence Group publishes a handbook which identified 195 major crude streams or blends in its 2011 edition.International Crude Oil Market Handbook, 2011

Benchmark (crude oil) Benchmarks are used because there are many List of crude oil products|different varieties and grades of crude oil. Using benchmarks makes referencing types of oil easier for sellers and buyers.

Benchmark (crude oil) There is always a spread between WTI, Brent and other blends due to the transportation cost.

Benchmark (crude oil) - West Texas Intermediate (WTI)
Brent is not as light or as sweet as WTI but it is still a high-grade crude

Since 2011, WTI has traded at a significant discount to Brent.

Edmonton Par and Western Canadian Select (WCS) are benchmarks crude oils for the Canadian market. Both Edmonton Par and West Texas Intermediate are high-quality low sulphur crude oils with API gravity levels of around 40°. In contrast, WCS is a heavy crude oil with an API gravity level of 20.5°.

Benchmark (crude oil) - Brent Blend
Brent Crude is used primarily in Europe and the OPEC market basket, used around the world. This benchmark is a mix of crude oil from 15 different oil fields in the North Sea.

Benchmark (crude oil) - Dubai and Oman
Dubai Crude is also known as Fateh is a light sour crude oil extracted from Dubai. It is produced in the Emirate of Dubai, part of the United Arab Emirates. Dubai's only refinery, at Jebel Ali, takes condensates as feedstocks, and therefore all of Dubai's crude production is exported. For many years it was the only freely traded oil in the Middle East, but gradually a spot market has developed in Omani crude as well.

Benchmark (crude oil) - Dubai and Oman
In July 2007, a potential new mechanism arose in the form of the Dubai Mercantile Exchange, which offers futures contracts in Omani crude

Benchmark (crude oil) - Contracts
Because of its excellent liquidity and price transparency, the contract is used as a principal international pricing benchmark.

The first futures contracts on crude oil were traded in 1983, with the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) and the New York Mercantile Exchange (Nymex) both attempting to take advantage of the government's de-regulation of crude oil. CBOT's initial contracts had delivery problems, so customers abandoned it for Nymex.[ The Asylum], Leah McGrath Goodman, 2011, HarperCollins, p90-91

Additional risk management and trading opportunities are offered through options on the futures contract; calendar spread options; crack spread options on the pricing differential of heating oil futures and crude oil futures and gasoline futures and crude oil futures; and average price options.

The contract trades in units of 1,000 barrels, and the delivery point is Cushing, Oklahoma, which is also accessible to the international spot markets via pipelines. The contract provides for delivery of several grades of domestic and internationally traded foreign crudes, and serves the diverse needs of the physical market.

Somatosensory system - Fine touch and crude touch
Fine touch (or discriminative touch) is a sensory modality which allows a subject to sense and localize touch. The form of touch where localization is not possible is known as crude touch. The posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway is the pathway responsible for the sending of fine touch information to the cerebral cortex of the brain.

Demographics of the Soviet Union - Crude death rate
*10 deaths/1,000 population (1990)

Crude oil The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed 'crude oil' and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil

Crude oil It is refined and separated, most easily by Continuous distillation#Continuous distillation of crude oil|distillation, into a large number of consumer products, from gasoline (petrol) and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and pharmaceuticals

Crude oil The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, has a negative impact on Earth's biosphere, releasing pollutants and greenhouse gases into the air and damaging ecosystems through events such as oil spills.

More than 4000 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was used in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on Zacynthus

While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil

Crude oil - Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of petroleum based liquids can be modeled as follows:

Crude oil - Formation Petroleum is a fossil fuel derived from ancient fossilized organic materials, such as zooplankton and algae

* Alkenes (olefins), which can be manufactured into plastics or other compounds

Crude oil - Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification is the increase in the acidity of the Earth's oceans caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide () from the Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere. This increase in acidity inhibits life such as scallops.[ Acidic ocean deadly for Vancouver Island scallop industry 2014 CBC news]

Crude oil - Global warming
When burned, petroleum releases carbon dioxide; a greenhouse gas

Crude oil - Peak oil Marion King Hubbert|Hubbert applied his theory to accurately predict the peak of U.S. conventional oil production at a date between 1966 and This prediction was based on data available at the time of his publication in In the same paper, Hubbert predicts world peak oil in half a century after his publication, which would be 2006.

Crude death rate 'Mortality rate' is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time

Crude death rate The crude death rate depends on the age (and gender) specific mortality rates and the age (and gender) distribution of the population

Crude death rate # The 'perinatal mortality rate', the sum of neonatal deaths and fetal deaths (stillbirths) per 1,000 births.

Crude death rate # The 'maternal mortality ratio', the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in same time period.

Crude death rate # The 'maternal mortality rate', the number of maternal deaths per 1,000 women of reproductive age in the population (generally defined as 15–44 years of age) .

Crude death rate # The 'infant mortality rate', the number of deaths of children less than 1 year old per 1,000 live births.

Crude death rate # The 'child mortality rate', the number of deaths of children less than 5 years old per 1,000 live births.

Crude death rate # The 'standardised mortality ratio' (SMR)- This represents a proportional comparison to the numbers of deaths that would have been expected if the population had been of a standard composition in terms of age, gender, etc.Everitt, B.S. The Cambridge Dictionary of Statistics, CUP. ISBN X

Crude death rate # The 'age-specific mortality rate' (ASMR) - This refers to the total number of deaths per year per 1,000 people of a given age (e.g. age 62 last birthday).

Crude death rate In regard to the wikt:success|success or failure of medicine|medical treatment or surgery|procedures, one would also distinguish:

Crude death rate # The 'early mortality rate', the total number of deaths in the early stages of an ongoing treatment, or in the period immediately following an wiktionary:acute|acute treatment.

Crude death rate # The 'late mortality rate', the total number of deaths in the late stages of an ongoing treatment, or a significant length of time after an acute treatment.

Crude death rate - Statistics
The ten countries with the highest crude death rate, according to the 2012 CIA World Factbook estimates, are:[ CIA World Factbook - Death Rate]

See list of countries by death rate for worldwide statistics.

According to the World Health Organization, the ten leading causes of death in 2002 were:

# 9.7% Cerebrovascular disease

# 4.8% Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Causes of death vary greatly between first and third world countries. See list of causes of death by rate for worldwide statistics.

According to Jean Ziegler (the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food for 2000 to March 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality in 2006: In the world, approximately 62 millions people, all causes of death combined, die each year. In 2006, more than 36 millions died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients.Jean Ziegler, L'Empire de la honte, Fayard, 2007 ISBN , p.130.

Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.

Crude death rate - Use in Health Care
Early recording of mortality rate in European cities proved highly useful in controlling the plague (disease)|plague and other major epidemics.Greenwood M

Crude birth rate The 'birth rate' (technically, births/population rate) is the total number of births per 1,000 of a population in a year

Crude birth rate The crude birth rate is the number of births per 1,000 people per year.See Fertility rates; Economic Geography Glossary at University of Washington Another term used interchangeably with birth rate is natality. When the crude death rate is subtracted from the crude birth rate, the result is the rate of natural increase (RNI). This is equal to the rate of population change (excluding migration).

Crude birth rate The total (crude) birth rate (which includes all births)—typically indicated as births per 1,000 population—is distinguished from an age-specific rate (the number of births per 1,000 persons in an age group). The first known use of the term birth rate in English occurred in 1859.

Crude birth rate In 2012 the average global birth rate was births per 1,000 total population, compared to per 1,000 total population in 2007.

Crude birth rate The raw birth rate (not births/population rate) is 4.3 births/second for the world (2014 est.).

Crude birth rate - Political issues
The birth rate is an issue of concern and policy for national governments. Some (including those of Italy and Malaysia) seek to increase the birth rate with financial incentives or provision of support services to new mothers. Conversely, other countries have policies to reduce the birth rate (for example, China's one-child policy). Measures such as improved information on birth control and its availability have achieved similar results in countries such as Family planning in Iran|Iran.

There has also been discussion on whether bringing women into the forefront of development initiatives will lead to a decline in birth rates

At the 1974 World Population Conference in Bucharest, Romania, Women's rights#Modern movements|women's issues gained considerable attention

Birth rates ranging from 10–20 births per 1,000 are considered low, while rates from 40–50 births per 1,000 are considered high

Crude birth rate - National birth rates
According to the CIA's The World Factbook, the country with the highest birth rate is Niger (at births per 1,000 people). The country with the lowest birth rate is Japan, at 7.64 births per thousand. (Hong Kong, a special administrative region of China, has a birth rate of 7.42 per thousand.)

Compared with the 1950s (when the birth rate was 36 per thousand), the birth rate has declined by 16 per thousand. In July 2011, the U.S. National Institutes of Health announced that the adolescent birth rate continues to decline.

Birth rates vary within a geographic area. In Europe as of July 2011, Ireland's birth rate is 16.5 per 1000 (3.5 percent higher than the next-ranked country, the UK). France has a birth rate of 12.8 per thousand, while Sweden is at 12.3.

In July 2011, the UK's Office for National Statistics (ONS) announced a 2.4 percent increase in live births in the UK in This is the highest birth rate in the UK in 40 years. However, the UK record year for births and birth rate remains 1920 (when the ONS reported over 957,000 births to a population of around 40 million). In contrast, the birth rate in Germany is only 8.3 per thousand—so low that the UK and France (which have smaller populations) had more births in the past year.

Birth rates also vary in a geographic area among demographic groups. For example, in April 2011 the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention announced that the birth rate for women over age 40 in the U.S. rose between 2007 and 2009 and fell in every other age group during the same period.

In August 2011 Taiwan's government announced that its birth rate declined in the previous year, despite the fact that the government implemented approaches to encourage fertility.

Crude birth rate - United States
According to U.S. federal-government data released in March 2011, births fell four percent from 2007 to 2009 (the largest drop in the U.S. for any two-year period since the 1970s).

Births have declined for three consecutive years, and are now seven percent below the 2007 peak

The research center’s study also found evidence of a correlation between economic difficulties and fertility decline by race and ethnicity

Other factors (such as women’s labor-force participation, contraceptive technology and public policy) make it difficult to determine how much economic change affect fertility

Teenage birth rates in the U.S

Crude birth rate - Current
The United States population growth is at an historical low level as the United States current birth rates are the lowest ever recorded. The low birth rates in the contemporary United States can possibly be ascribed to the recession, which led women to postpone having children and fewer immigrants coming to America. The current US birth rates are not high enough to maintain the size of the U.S. population, according to The Economist.

Crude birth rate - Measurement methods
The crude birth rate may be measured as the number of births in a given population during a given time period (such as a calendar year), divided by the total population and multiplied by 1,000.

According to the United Nations' World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision Population Database, the crude birth rate is the number of births over a given period, divided by the person-years lived by the population over that period. It is expressed as the number of births per 1,000 population.

Another frequently-used indicator is the total fertility rate, the average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime. The total fertility rate is generally a better indicator of current fertility rates because unlike the crude birth rate, it is not affected by the age distribution of the population. Fertility rates tend to be higher in less economically-developed countries and lower in more economically-developed countries.

Crude birth rate - Factors affecting birth rate
* Government population policy, such as Natalism|pronatalist or Antinatalism|antinatalist policies (for instance, a tax on childlessness)

* Availability of family planning services, such as birth control and sex education

* Infant mortality rate: A family may have more children if a country's infant mortality rate is high, since it is likely some of those children will die.

* Existing Population pyramid|age-sex structure

* Social and religious beliefs, especially in relation to contraception and abortion

* Industrialization: In a preindustrial agrarian economy, unskilled (or semiskilled) manual labor was needed for production; children can be viewed as an economic resource in developing countries, since child labour|they can earn money. As people require more training, parents tend to have fewer children and invest more resources in each child; the higher the level of technology, the lower the birth rate (the demographic-economic paradox).

* Measures of national income and output|Economic prosperity or economic difficulty: In difficult economic times, couples delay (or decrease) childbearing.

* Illiteracy and unemployment

Different cultures also affect the birth rate. Some religions perhaps would prefer a certain number of children or even none at all until a certain age.

Crude birth rate - Demographic transition
Demographic transition refers to the decline in population mortality and fertility decline with social and economic development. The two major factors affecting demographic transition are the crude birth rate (CBR) and the crude death rate (CDR).

Crude birth rate - Demographic transition
Demographic transition may be considered in four stages

Continuous distillation - Continuous distillation of crude oil
For example, the crude oil fractionator produces an overhead fraction called naphtha which becomes a gasoline component after it is further processed through a catalytic hydrodesulfurizer to remove sulfur and a catalytic reformer to reform its hydrocarbon molecules into more complex molecules with a higher octane rating value.

Continuous distillation - Continuous distillation of crude oil
The naphtha cut, as that fraction is called, contains many different hydrocarbon compounds

Demographics of Iraq - Crude birth rate
: births/1,000 population (2013 est.)

Demographics of Iraq - Crude death rate
: 4.65 deaths/1,000 population (2013 est.)

CRUD Sometimes CRUD is expanded with the words retrieve instead of read, modify instead of update, or destroy instead of delete

CRUD The acronym may be extended to CRUDL to cover listing of large data sets which bring additional complexity such as pagination when the data sets are too large to hold easily in memory.

CRUD Another variation of CRUD is BREAD, an acronym for Browse, Read, Edit, Add, Delete.

CRUD - Database applications
The acronym CRUD refers to all of the major functions that are implemented in relational database application software|applications. Each letter in the acronym can map to a standard SQL statement, HTTP method or Data_Distribution_Service|DDS operation:

CRUD - Database applications
Although a relational database provides a common persistence layer in software applications, numerous other persistence layers exist. CRUD functionality can be implemented with an object database, an XML database, Flat file database|flat text files, custom file formats, tape, or card, for example.

CRUD - User interface CRUD is also relevant at the user interface level of most applications. For example, in address book software, the basic storage unit is an individual contact (social)|contact entry. As a bare minimum, the software must allow the user to

* Update or edit existing entries
CRUD - User interface * Update or edit existing entries

CRUD - User interface Without at least these four operations, the software cannot be considered complete. Because these operations are so fundamental, they are often documented and described under one comprehensive heading, such as contact management, content management or contact maintenance (or document management in general, depending on the basic storage unit for the particular application).

Jon Cruddas 'Jonathan Cruddas' (born 7 April 1962) is a British people|British Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party politician who has been a Member of Parliament (MP) since United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001, first for Dagenham (UK Parliament constituency)|Dagenham and then for Dagenham and Rainham (UK Parliament constituency)|Dagenham and Rainham.

Jon Cruddas He won the most votes in the first round of voting, obtaining 19.39% of the vote from both party members and party-affiliated organisations, and it is thought that the second-choice votes of the Cruddas supporters contributed to Harriet Harman|Harriet Harman's eventual victory

Jon Cruddas Despite being touted by some media sources as a potential candidate for the Leader of the Labour Party (UK)|Leadership of the Labour Party in the future, he ruled himself out of the Labour Party (UK) leadership election, 2010|2010 leadership election, saying that he did not want the job but instead wanted to influence policy. In 2012, Cruddas was appointed to Shadow Cabinet of Ed Miliband|Ed Miliband's Shadow Cabinet, replacing Liam Byrne as Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party Policy Coordinator.

Jon Cruddas - Early life and education
Cruddas was educated at the Oaklands Catholic School|Oaklands Roman Catholic Comprehensive School in Waterlooville, Portsmouth, before attending the University of Warwick where he graduated with an Master of Arts (postgraduate)|M.A

Jon Cruddas - Early career
In 1989, he became a Policy wonk|policy officer for the Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party before being appointed Senior Assistant to General Secretary of the Labour Party|Labour Party General Secretary Larry Whitty in 1994, remaining in that position when Tom Sawyer, Baron Sawyer|Tom Sawyer became General Secretary that same year

Jon Cruddas - Political career
Cruddas was selected to be the prospective parliamentary candidate|Prospective Parliamentary Candidate for the safe Labour Party (UK)|Labour seat of Dagenham (UK Parliament constituency)|Dagenham in 2000, after incumbent MP Judith Church announced that she would be retiring. He was elected as the new MP for Dagenham one year later at the United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001 election, with a majority of 8,693.

From the backbenches, Cruddas quickly became a vocal critic of the government for what he saw as their ignoring of their traditional, working-class support in a bid to woo middle-class voters.[ Labour 'ignoring working classes'] BBC News, 25 September 2005 He rebelled against the government on a number of occasions, including on the introduction of Tuition fees in the United Kingdom|university top-up fees, the legislation on asylum seekers, the introduction of trust schools, proposals to renew the UK Trident programme|UK Trident nuclear weapons system, and foundation trusts.[ The Labour rebels on tuition fees] BBC News, 27 January 2004[ Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Bill — Clause 43 — Accommodation — 29 Mar 2006 at 17:00 — Commons Division No

After winning re-election, Cruddas took up a part-time position teaching Labour history at University College, Oxford from 2010 to 2012.

Jon Cruddas - Deputy leadership election
On 27 September 2006, Cruddas announced his intention to stand to become Deputy Leader of the British Labour Party|Deputy Leader of the Labour Party once the incumbent, John Prescott, stood down.[ Cruddas to stand for deputy leadership] The Guardian, 27 September 2006 He said that unlike the other candidates for the position he did not want to be Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Deputy Prime Minister, but instead wished to act as a transmission belt with the grassroots of the party.[ Interview: Jon Cruddas] BBC News, 2 March 2007 In interviews, Cruddas also said that he did not want the trappings or baubles that would potentially come with the job of Deputy Prime Minister, such as use of the Dorneywood weekend country residence.[ Jon Cruddas: You Ask The Questions] The Independent, 7 May 2007

Cruddas accrued nominations from 49 MPs and received strong union backing, including Amicus and the Transport and General Workers' Union.[ Union chief backing Cruddas bid] BBC News, 9 March 2007[ Choose change: Vote Cruddas] TGWU.org He also received backing from former Deputy Leader Roy Hattersley,[ Jon Cruddas Gains Momentum With Hattersley Endorsement] CCNMatthews, 19 May 2007 Mayor of London Ken Livingstone,[ Ken Livingstone and Unite back Jon Cruddas for deputy leader] JonCruddas.org.uk, 18 May 2007 National Union of Students (United Kingdom)|NUS President Gemma Tumelty, and former National Executive Committee member, actor and presenter Tony Robinson.[ Tony Robinson backs Jon Cruddas] JonCruddas.org.uk, 9 May 2007 The left-wing magazine Tribune (magazine)|Tribune endorsed him as the change that is required.[ Leader column] from Tribune, JonCruddas.org.uk, 11 May 2007

On 24 June 2007, it was announced that Harriet Harman had won the election, although Cruddas gained the highest proportion of votes in the first round. He was ultimately eliminated in the fourth round of voting, coming third behind Harman and Alan Johnson. He had secured the highest number of votes from members of affiliated organisation in every round before his elimination.

Jon Cruddas - Policy Review Coordinator
On 15 May 2012, Leader of the Labour Party (UK)|Labour Leader Ed Miliband offered Cruddas a position in his Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (United Kingdom)|Shadow Cabinet as Labour's Policy Coordinator, with a view to crafting Labour's manifesto for Next UK general election|the next election. Cruddas accepted the offer, saying that it had always been his wish to influence policy.

Jon Cruddas - Political views
Cruddas won a Compass membership poll in March 2007, gaining 53% of first preference votes among the deputy leadership candidates.[ Members of Compass overwhelmingly vote to support Jon Cruddas for Labour Deputy Leader] Compass, 7 March 2007 In terms of his relative position within the Labour Party, newspapers have described Cruddas as left wing,[ For Labour flavour, who will be deputy is the top tussle] Financial Times, 26 February 2007 (republished on JonCruddas.org.uk) however he has also been described as modernising centre-left,[ Labour's lost its moral purpose, warns Cruddas] The Telegraph, 14 April 2007 and more recently has become associated with the socially conservative Blue Labour tendency and has formed a political partnership with James Purnell

After speculation that the Roman Catholic Cruddas was in favour of restricting abortion, he re-affirmed his pro-choice position.[ Compass Youth interviews Jon Cruddas] Compass Youth, 30 October 2006 In an interview concerning Cruddas' faith, he stated in our family the political heroes weren’t Hugh Gaitskell|Gaitskell or Nye Bevan|Bevan

The Times Guide to the House of Commons describes him as a well-liked and well-respected left winger who took on the British National Party|BNP and won.The Times Guide to the House of Commons 2010, p 145

Jon Cruddas - Personal life
He married Labour activist Anna Mary Healy in 1992, and they have one son. His wife works as an assistant for Harriet Harman, and had previously worked for Labour MPs Jack Cunningham, Mo Mowlam and Gus Macdonald, Baron Macdonald of Tradeston|Gus Macdonald. Cruddas lives in Notting Hill. Cruddas was banned from driving for 8 weeks for driving with no MOT or insurance in October 2012.

Arthur Crudup He is best known outside blues circles for writing songs such as That's All Right (1946),[ Official legal title of Crudup's 'That's All Right'] My Baby Left Me and So Glad You're Mine, later covered by Elvis Presley and dozens of other artists.

Arthur Crudup - Career Crudup stayed in Chicago to work as a solo musician, but barely made a living as a street singer

He also recorded under the names Elmer James and Percy Lee Crudup
Arthur Crudup - Career He also recorded under the names Elmer James and Percy Lee Crudup

Arthur Crudup - Career Crudup returned to Mississippi after a dispute with Melrose over royalties, then went into moonshine|bootlegging, and later moved to Virginia where he had lived and worked as a musician and laborer

Arthur Crudup - Career From the mid-1960s, Crudup returned to bootlegging and working as an agricultural laborer, chiefly in Virginia, where he lived with his family including three sons and several of his own siblings

Arthur Crudup - Career There was some confusion as to his actual date of death because of his use of several names, including those of his siblings. He died of a heart attack in the Nassawadox, Virginia|Nassawadox hospital in Northampton County, Virginia in March 1974.[ Thedeadrockstarsclub.com - accessed November 2009]

Arthur Crudup - Career Crudup was honored with a marker on the Mississippi Blues Trail placed at Forest.

Arthur Crudup - Collaborative albums
*Sunny Road – with Jimmy Dawkins and Willie Big Eyes Smith|Willie Smith (Delmark, 1969)

Arthur Crudup - Collaborative albums
*Arthur BigBoy Crudup Meets the Master Blues Bassists – with Willie Dixon and Ransom Knowling (Delmark, 1994)

Crud (disambiguation)
*Waste, dirt, feces, or something of poor quality

*Create, read, update and delete (CRUD), basic functions of a computer database

*Crud (band), Detroit rock band

*Crud (fanzine), punk rock magazine

*Crud (game), game played on a billiard table

*CRUD (radio station), former radio station of Rochdale College in Toronto, Canada

Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing - Crude oil
Between 2004 and 2008, there was an increase in fuel costs due in large part to a worldwide increase in demand for crude oil

Crude oil - Unconventional Production
The calculus for peak oil has changed with the introduction of unconventional production methods

Alaska North Slope - Alaska North Slope (ANS) crude production
Alaska North Slope (ANS) is a more expensive waterborne crude. Since 1987, Alaska North Slope (ANS) crude production has been in decline.

Billy Crudup Crudup also has experience in voice acting, having voiced the English version of the character Ashitaka from the Studio Ghibli animated film, Princess Mononoke

Billy Crudup - Early life
Crudup has two brothers: Tommy, an executive producer, and Brooks, also a producer

Billy Crudup - Early life
Crudup attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he received an undergraduate degree, and he continued his passion for acting with the undergraduate acting company, LAB! Theatre

Billy Crudup - Career Crudup began acting in films such as 1996's Sleepers (film)|Sleepers, 1997's Inventing the Abbotts and 1998's Without Limits, where he played the role of Olympic hopeful Steve Prefontaine

Billy Crudup - Career He also appeared as Zartan in The Ballad of G.I. Joe video on funnyordie.com.

Billy Crudup - Career Crudup received a Tony Award nomination for his performance as Joseph Merrick|the title character in The Elephant Man (play)|The Elephant Man on Broadway, as well as for his role as Katurian in the Broadway production of The Pillowman, also starring Jeff Goldblum, which closed on September 18, 2005

Billy Crudup - Career He also starred in The Metal Children, an off-Broadway play written and directed by Adam Rapp in Crudup completed Watchmen (film)|Watchmen with director Zack Snyder in Vancouver, British Columbia. He portrays the superhero Doctor Manhattan. He portrayed former U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Timothy Geithner in a story about 2008's financial crisis, Too Big to Fail (film)|Too Big to Fail (2011).

Billy Crudup - Career In 2011, Crudup was honored with a Tony Award nomination for Featured Actor in a Play for his role in the Broadway revival of Arcadia.

Billy Crudup - Career In February 2012, Crudup narrated a five-part television series on the first (of three) stages of the renovation of Madison Square Garden, which was televised on the Madison Square Garden Network.

Billy Crudup - Career In August 2013, he co-starred with Ian McKellen and Patrick Stewart in the Harold Pinter play, No Man's Land as well as in Waiting for Godot at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre. The shows transferred to The Cort Theatre in New York City, where they will be performed in repertory until March

Billy Crudup - Personal life
From 1996 to November 2003, Crudup dated actress Mary-Louise Parker, with whom he has a son, William Atticus Parker, born on January 7, Crudup left Parker while she was seven months pregnant. He immediately entered a relationship with Claire Danes.[ Mary-Louise Parker Likes to Reveal Herself] However the couple broke up four years later.

Billy Crudup - Wins ;2007 :Tony Award. for The Coast of Utopia|The Coast of Utopia: Part 1 - Voyage

;2000 :Paris Film Festival, for Jesus' Son
Billy Crudup - Wins ;2000 :Paris Film Festival, for Jesus' Son

;1999 :Western Heritage Award, for The Hi-Lo Country
Billy Crudup - Wins ;1999 :Western Heritage Award, for The Hi-Lo Country

;1998 :NBR Award, for The Hi-Lo Country
Billy Crudup - Wins ;1998 :NBR Award, for The Hi-Lo Country

Billy Crudup - Nominations
;2001 :Screen Actors Guild Awards, for Almost Famous

:Blockbuster Entertainment Award, for Almost Famous

:Independent Spirit Award, for Jesus' Son

:MTV Movie Award, for Almost Famous

Heavy crude oil In 2010, the World Energy Council defined extra heavy oil as crude oil having a gravity of less than 10° and a reservoir viscosity of no more than centipoises

Heavy crude oil Conventional heavy oil and bitumens differ in the degree by which they have been degraded from the original crude oil by bacteria and erosion

Heavy crude oil According to World Resources Institute, concentrations of remarkable quantities of heavy oil and oil sands are found in Canada and Venezuela.

Heavy crude oil The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) reported in 2001 that the largest reserves of heavy crude oil in the world were located north of the Orinoco river 270-mile long by 40-mile wide Orinoco Belt in eastern Venezuela. At that time Venezuela began authorizing joint ventures to upgrade the extra-heavy crude resources. Petroleos de Venezuela, S.A. (PDVSA) at that time estimated that there were 270 billion barrels of recoverable reserves in the area,

the same amount as the conventional oil reserves of Saudi Arabia.
Heavy crude oil the same amount as the conventional oil reserves of Saudi Arabia.

Heavy crude oil The Orinoco Belt in Venezuela is sometimes described as oil sands, but these deposits are non-bituminous, falling instead into the category of heavy or extra-heavy oil due to their lower viscosity

Heavy crude oil Per the Alberta Oil Sands Bitumen Valuation Methodology, Dilbit Blends means Blends made from heavy crudes and/or bitumens and a diluent usually natural-gas condensate|condensate, for the purpose of meeting pipeline viscosity and density specifications, where the density of the diluent included in the blend is less than 800 kg/m3.

Heavy crude oil - Economics
Heavy crude oils provide an interesting situation for the economics of petroleum development. The resources of heavy oil in the world are more than twice those of conventional light crude oil. In October 2009, the United States Geological Survey updated the Orinoco Belt|Orinoco deposits (Venezuela) recoverable value to ,

making this area one of the world's largest recoverable oil deposits. However, recovery rates for heavy oil are often limited from 5-30% of oil in place. The chemical makeup is often the defining variable in recovery rates. The technology utilized for the recovery of heavy oil has steadily increased recovery rates.[ Canadian International Petroleum Comference (2001)]

On the other hand, large quantities of heavy crudes have been discovered in the Americas, including Canada, Venezuela and California

Heavy crude oil - Extraction
Production of heavy oil is becoming more common in many countries, with 2008 production led by Canada and Venezuela. Methods for extraction include Cold heavy oil production with sand, steam assisted gravity drainage, Steam injection (oil industry)|steam injection, vapor extraction, Oil sands#Toe to Heel Air Injection (THAI)|Toe-to-Heel Air Injection (THAI), and open-pit mining for extremely sandy and oil-rich deposits.

Heavy crude oil - Environmental impact
With current production and transportation methods, heavy crudes have a more severe environmental impact than light ones. With more difficult production comes the employment of a variety of enhanced oil recovery techniques, including steam flooding and tighter well spacing, often as close as one well per acre. Heavy crude oils also carry contaminants. For example, Orinoco oil sands|Orinoco extra heavy oil contains 4.5% sulfur as well as vanadium and nickel.

On the other hand heavy crude is a better source for road asphalt mixes than light crude.

With present technology, the extraction and refining of heavy oils and oil sands generates as much as three times the total CO2 emissions compared to conventional oil,J.R

In a 2009 report, the National Toxics Network, citing data provided by the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center of the government of the United States and the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP), emissions of CO2 per unit of energy produced were ~84% of those for coal (0.078/0.093), higher than CO2 emissions of conventional oil.[ The Heavy Oil Power Deal. A Dark Cloud over East Timor’s Bright Future]

Environmental Research Web has reported that because of the energy needed for extraction and processing, petroleum from Canadian oil tar sands has higher life cycle emission versus conventional fossil fuels; up to 25% more.[ CO2 emissions from tar sands and oil infrastructure investments]

Heavy crude oil - Geological origin
Most geologists agree that crude becomes ‘heavy’ as a result of biodegradation, in which lighter ends are preferentially consumed by bacterial activity in the reservoir, leaving heavier hydrocarbons behind. This hypothesis leans heavily on the techniques of petroleum geochemistry. Poor geologic Seal rock|reservoir sealing exposes the hydrocarbon to surface contaminants, including organic life (such as bacteria) and contributes to this process.

Heavy crude oil - Geological origin
Heavy oils can be found in shallow, young reservoirs, with rocks from the Pleistocene, Pliocene, and Miocene (younger than 25 million years). In some cases, it can also be found in older Cretaceous, Mississippian age|Mississippian, and Devonian reservoirs. These reservoirs tend to be poorly sealed, resulting in heavy oil and oil-sands.

Heavy crude oil - Chemical properties
For example, the viscosity of Venezuela's Orinoco extra-heavy crude oil lies in the range 1000ndash;5000 Poise|cP (1ndash;5 pascal second|Pa·s), while Canadian extra-heavy crude has a viscosity in the range 5000ndash;10,000 cP (5ndash;10 Pa·s), about the same as molasses, and higher (up to 100,000 cP or 100 Pa·s for the most viscous commercially exploitable deposits).

The heaviness of heavy oil is primarily the result of a relatively high proportion of a mixed bag of complex, high molecular weight, non-paraffinic compounds and a low proportion of volatile, low molecular weight compounds. Heavy oils typically contain 'very little paraffin' and may or may not contain high levels of asphaltenes.[ What causes heavy oil if they don't have asphaltene or paraffin problems?] - Chevron Phillips Chemical

There are two main types of heavy crude oil:

# Those that have over 1% sulfur (high sulfur crude oils), with aromatics and asphaltenes, and these are mostly found in North America (Canada (Alberta, Saskatchewan), United States (California), Mexico), South America (Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador) and the Middle East (Kuwait, Saudi Arabia).

# Those that have less than 1% sulfur (low sulfur crude oils), with aromatics, naphthenes and resins, and these are mostly found in Western Africa (Chad), Central Africa (Angola) and East Africa (Madagascar).

Crudos 'Crudo' (Spanish for wikt:raw|raw) is a typical German-Chilean dish similar to a steak tartare. It is made by putting finely chopped raw beef mince onto a piece of pre-sliced white bread and then adding lemon juice, chopped onions and a sauce made of yogurt and mayonnaise.

Crudos The predominance of cattle farming in southern Chile in contrast to pig farming in Central Europe eventually led to a local adaptation, using beef instead of pork to recreate this traditional dish.

Romania is the first country in the world to have had its annual crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics: 275 tonnes for 1857.[ The History Of Romanian Oil Industry][ PBS: World Events]

Crude oil - Composition
In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes all liquid, gaseous, and solid hydrocarbons

Condensate resembles petrol in appearance and is similar in composition to some volatility (chemistry)|volatile light crude oils.

The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies greatly among different oil fields, ranging from as much as 97 percent by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50 percent in the heavier oils and bitumens.

The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as follows:Speight (1999), p. 215–216.

Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil.

In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, black, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow

Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.

Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and oil reserves|relative abundance, oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics; the 16 percent not used for energy production is converted into these other materials.

Petroleum is found in porosity|porous rock formations in the upper stratum|strata of some areas of the Earth's crust (geology)|crust

Crude oil - Heat of combustion
At a constant volume the heat of combustion of a petroleum product can be approximated as follows:

Crude oil - Specific heat
The specific heat of a petroleum oils can be modeled as follows:Speight (2007), p. 25.

Crude oil - Specific heat
In units of kcal/(kg·°C), the formula is:

Crude oil - Latent heat of vaporization
The latent heat of vaporization can be modeled under atmospheric conditions as follows:

In units of kcal/kg, the formula is:

where the temperature t is in Celsius and d is the specific gravity at 15°C.United States Bureau of Standards, Thermal Properties of Petroleum Products. Miscellaneous Publication No. 97, November 9, 1929.

Crude oil - Classification
Crude oil may be considered Light crude oil|light if it has low density or Heavy crude oil|heavy if it has high density; and it may be referred to as sweet crude oil|sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur or sour crude oil|sour if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur.

Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are understood by the use of Crude oil assay|crude oil assay analysis in petroleum laboratories.

barrel (unit)|Barrels from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined and the oil has been classified are used as pricing Benchmark (crude oil)|references throughout the world. Some of the common reference crudes are:

* West Texas Intermediate (WTI), a very high-quality, sweet, light oil delivered at Cushing, Oklahoma for North American oil

* Brent Crude|Brent Blend, comprising 15 oils from fields in the Brent oilfield|Brent and Ninian systems in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea. The oil is landed at Sullom Voe terminal in Shetland. Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle Eastern oil flowing West tends to be priced off this oil, which forms a Benchmark (crude oil)|benchmark

* Dubai Crude|Dubai-Oman, used as benchmark for Middle East sour crude oil flowing to the Asia-Pacific region

* Tapis crude|Tapis (from Malaysia, used as a reference for light Far East oil)

* Minas (from Indonesia, used as a reference for heavy Far East oil)

* The OPEC Reference Basket, a weighted average of oil blends from various OPEC (The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries

* Midway-Sunset Oil Field|Midway Sunset Heavy, by which heavy oil in California is priced

There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West Texas Intermediate delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil delivered at Hardisty, Alberta|Hardisty, Alberta, and for a Brent Blend delivered at Shetland, it may be a Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of Primorsk, Leningrad Oblast|Primorsk.

Petroleum classification according to chemical composition.
Crude oil - Fuels Petroleum classification according to chemical composition.

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