1. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

2. PRESENTED BY: YOUSAF KHAN Ph.D SCHOLAR (AIOU) ICOFE (2014) OPEN UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG.

3. ABSTRACT Cognitive apprenticeship is a learning theory that explains how learning related to concepts, processes, strategies and procedures of different school related thinking and understanding skills can be learned by engaging learners in e-learning types activities or designs in ICT-rich environment. It provides schooling through teaching methods (Pedagogy) of: modeling, coaching, scaffodding and fading on the basis of individual’s Zone of proximal development (ZPD) or prior learning and interaction with more knowledgeable others (MKO); to fill in the gape of knowledge and skill; and it helps the learner to develop his own cognitive and metacognitive abilities through articulation, reflection and exploration (self-regulated learning) to become the master and trainer in his domain of knowledge and skill (contextual learning). In this way person becomes creative. The purpose of the study is to review literature for effective pedagogy in open and flexible learning environments at school level and develop a model for cognitive apprenticeships. Keywords: Cognitive apprenticeship. Open and flexible schooling. e-learning design and engagements. Creativity. Modeling.. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

4. 1. Introduction: According to Liu (2005): The teachers often uses instructional planning g as an essential activity to become professional in teaching and proved experimentally that as compared to traditional instructional planning (design) cognitive apprenticeship model is more better to improve teacher preferences and attitudes. Liu (2005) also writes that cognitive apprenticeship is viewed as “Instructional tool” that is aimed at acquiring thinking skills such as cognitive skills and metacognitive strategies resulting in sustained participation in the community and practice. Collen et al (1989) proposed a model consisting of six major steps; Molding, Coaching, Scaffolding, Articulation, Reflection and Exploration; while Le Grand et al 1993; Farmer et al 1992; proposed a model consisting of five steps for professional education. a)Modeling (observing) b)Approximating (coaching and practicing) c)Fading (reducing coaching and scaffolding) d)Self-directed learning (Articulation and reflection) e)Generalizing (Exploration and creativity) COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

5. Cognitive apprenticeship is based on Vygotsky’s research and is also related to other studies of conventional apprenticeships. (Brone et al, 1989; Lave and Winger, 1991 as cited by Liu, 2005). Liu (2005): Web-based cognitive apprenticeships model has three phases as shown in the Figure: 1; given below for pre-service teacher training. A theory of learning process in which a master of a skill teaches that skill to an apprentice (a novice) in order to give him mastry of the skill, is known as cognitive apprenticeship. This study is aimed at making the concept of cognitive apprenticeship understandable and applicable in e-learning environment at school level. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

6. 2. Methodology The method used by the researcher is review of literature, analysis and synthesis for developing a model with examples from school subject (geometry) to make it applicable in open and flexible learning environment. 3. What is Cognitive Apprenticeship? According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2011): “Cognitive apprenticeship is a theory of the process where a master of a skill teaches that skill to an apprentice.” Awan (2009): Holmes and Gardner (2006), quoting Collins et al (1991) who mention four processes of traditional model of apprenticeship that includes: o Modeling (initiation) o Scaffolding (support and guidance) o Fading (withdrawing support gradually); and o Coaching (Developing and guiding) COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

7. According to theory of cognitive apprenticeship a master of skills when demonstrating to the novices or immatures often fails to make all the complex skills and processes explicit. By using processes such as modeling and coaching, cognitive apprenticeships also support the three stages of skill acquisition described in the expertise literature. o The cognitive stage (internalization), o The Association stage (bond formation), and o The autonomous stage (self-regulation). (Anderson 1983; Fitts and Pasner. 1967 as cited in Awan, 2009). It means that cognitive apprenticeship refers to schooling and understanding of the ideas, concepts, processes, procedures and strategies of skills (toolkits) through mediated intervention from masters or tutors or instructors (web-based or traditional) in a school related or professional and vocational knowledge and skill. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

8. 4. Theoretical Bases of Cognitive Apprenticeships Now, we are going to discuss the theoretical bases of cognitive apprenticeships in order to understand the concept in the context of theory. 4.1. Bruner’s constructivist theory According to Patsula (1999): “Bruner’s constructivist theory is based upon the study of cognition.” A major theme in this theory is that: “Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.” (Kearsely; 1994 b as cited by Patsula, 1999). A theory of instruction should address the following aspects:  The most effective sequence to present materials.  The ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner (act small and learn rapidly). COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

9. Hence, the practical applications of Bruner’s constructivist theory in cognitive apprenticeships are: o Readiness of the learner (physically and psychologically) o Spiral organization (sequence) of the learning material o Designing the instruction to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps. (Going beyond the information given) by using advance organizers (Ausbil’s theory) within ZPD (Vygotsky’s theory). 4.2. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory Bandura’s social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes and emotional reactions of others for learning. The processes underlying observational learning are as kearsely (1994 c) explains: a)Attention: (including cognitive organization and motor rehearsal) b)Retention: (including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction and accuracy of feedback). c)Motivation: (including external or vicarious and self-reinforcement). d)Observing Characteristics: (such as sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set and past reinforcement). (Kearsely 1994 c, as cited by Awan, 2009). COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

10. 4.3. Carroll’s Minimalist Theory as Applied to e-learning Delivery and Design: Patsula (1999): The minimalist theory of Carroll focuses on the instructional design of training materials for computer user and has been extensively applied to the design of computer documentation and it is based upon studies of people learning to a wide range of computer applications including word processors and data bases. The critical idea in Carroll’s Minimalist theory is to make the instructional materials minimized so that it should not provide hindrances but, rather to facilitate learning. Course designers must minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner’s directed activity and accomplishment. (Kearsely 1994 d as cited in Patsula, 1999). It means that the instructional materials should be minimized to make it incremental (Scale agile framework). COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

11. 4.4. Vygosky’s theory of Social Cognitive Development Bandura’s and Vygosky’s theories are both complementary to each other because both emphasize social interaction necessary for learning. Social interaction (MKO) plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition within ZPD. (Kearsay 1994 c as cited Patsula, 1999). An important concept in Vygosky’s theory is that: “The potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span which he calls the “Zone of proximal development” (ZPD). COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING ZPD = Potential for learning – Actual potential (Ability test) (Aptitude test) (Achievement test)

12. Conclusion of the discussion on theories of learning: In sum, we can say that for cognitive apprenticeships in e-learning; the tutor or instructor must take help from the theories of learning and their practical implications and applications in e-learning design, instruction, interaction, engagement, motivation, reinforcement and feedback. 5. Designing issues in e-learning for cognitive apprenticeships Awan (2009): The designer of e-learning for cognitive apprenticeships has to address many issues relating to organizational strategies and management, curriculum design and development, coordination and planning, selection of appropriate technology, media, development of instructional design, delivery system/strategy, research methods and approaches, e-skills, assessment/evaluation, interface design and ethical issues and there may be many more with the passage of time and new emerging trends in technological world (global and virtual knowledge) in the 21 st century. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

13. 6. Learners engagement in e-learning: Incorporating Learning Styles Variety (IDs) Awan (2009): Several types of learning engagement can encompass an e-learning environment (VLEs) and this includes: Case studies, Problem based learning, Gaming, Simulations and Web Quests (Holmes and Gardner, 2006 as cited in Awan, 2009). Therefore, the elements usually considered as engagements by the e-learning designers are: Activity, Scenarios, Feedback, Delivery (Media), Context and Influence, etc (Awan, 2009). The learner engages with their learning when the above elements are present in e- learning. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

14. 7. Support of tutor in e-learning for engagement in cognitive apprenticeships: Tutorial learning paradigm Sulcic and Sulcic (2007): The key elements of the tutorial learning paradigm are interactivity, individualization, adaptability, creativity and collaboration etc. (Bork, 2000 as cited by Sulcic and Sulcic 2007). Online tutors support e-learners through different roles. Authors and researchers have different classifications of roles tutor perform in e-learning environment. An often cited classification made by Berge (nd) defines four basic roles of an online tutor:  Pedagogical (scaffolding and coaching)  Managerial (facilitation)  Social (contextualization); and  Technical (Mechanization) (Sulcic and Sulcic 2007) COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

15. 8. Teaching Methods in Cognitive Apprenticeships The first three methods (Modeling, coaching, scaffolding) are at the core of cognitive apprenticeship and help with cognitive and metacognitive development. The next two (articulation and reflection) are designed to help novices with awareness of problem-solving strategies and execution similar to that of an expert. The final step (exploration) intends to guide the novices towards independence and the ability to solve and identify problems within the domain of their own. The authors note, however, that this is not an exhaustive list of methods and that the successful execution of these methods is highly dependent on the domain (i.e. context of knowledge and skill) and the researcher found that it can be developed to another step of creativity or new productivity in open and flexible learning environment. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

16. 8.1. Modeling (Observation and Demonstration): Modeling is the first and pre-requisite step in cognitive apprenticeship when an expert usually a teacher, within the cognitive domain or subject area demonstrates a task explicitly so that novices (usually a student), can experience and build a conceptual model of the task at hand. e.g. a maths teacher might write out explicit steps and work through a problem aloud; demonstrating heuristic and procedural knowledge. Modeling can include modeling of expert performance or processes in the world (Bandura’s model). COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

17. 8.2. Coaching (Approximation and Shaping): Coaching involves observing novices tasks performance and offering feedback and hints to sculpt the novices performance to that of an expert. The expert oversees the novice’s tasks and may structure the task accordingly to assist in the novice’s development. It requires successive approximation and intermittent reinforcement (B.F.Skinner model) COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

18. 8.3. Scaffolding and Fading (Needed support provision in formative evaluation): “Scaffolding” is the act of putting into place strategies and methods to support the student’s learning. These supports can be teaching manipulations, activities, group work or discussion and demonstration of task. The teacher may have to execute parts of the task that the student is not yet able to do. This requires the teacher (tutor) to have the skill to analyze and assess student’s abilities at the moment (formative evaluation), “Fading” is used to withdraw the support gradually. Scaffolding is followed by “fading” to withdraw support gradually for mastering the skill. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

19. 8.4. Articulation (Demonstration and Verbalization): Articulation includes any method of getting students to articulate their knowledge, reasoning or problem-solving processes in a domain (or context). Here the context is geometrical figures (right angled triangles). COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

20. 8.5. Reflection (Comparison and Criticism): The goal of reflection is for students to look back and analyze their performance with a desire for understanding and improvement towards the behavior of an expert. (Wikipedia, 2011). Example: To understand that right angled triangle have one angle 90 0 and a triangle have only one angle 90 ◦ at maximum and a square have four angles of 90 0 at maximum. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

21. 8.6. Exploration (Problem solving and Generalization): Exploration allows the students to frame interesting problem within the domain for themselves and then take the initiative to solve these problems. Here, the domain is geometrical figures (in the example). Example: The student now can explore that a square or rectangle have two right angled triangles and can explore the right angled triangle in other geometric figures such as pentagon, hexagon etc. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

22. 8.7. Creativity (New Optimum production and Experimentation): The researcher has suggested that the next stage is creativity in school subjects or professional cognitive and metacognitive skills and strategies (toolkits using for new production). Example: To draw a diagram of cube and show the right angled triangles in it: COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

23. 9. Discussion: Conclusion of teaching methods in cognitive apprenticeships: In conclusion, we can say that cognitive apprenticeship is a theory of learning processes where the master of a skill (tutor) teaches that skill (tutoring) to an apprentice (student or novice) through different techniques and methods (toolkits) and through different activities and interactions or engagements; utilizing different theories of learning and motivation and making different learning designs according to e-learning modes and environment and according to different abilities, capacities, learning styles and domains of the students; to enable them to master, articulate, reflect, explore and create in their respective domains and achieving the objectives of e-learning to make learning open and flexible; effectively and efficiently in Virtual Learning Environment Framework (VLEF). It also needs the skill and utilization of ICT and online or web based techniques and technologies (toolkits) both on the part of the learner and the tutor confronted with different issues and challenges. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

24. But, the most important point to be considered while designing a programme of learning through ICT for cognitive apprenticeships is the “Zone of proximal development” (ZPD) as the starting point for optimum development; and modeling and coaching for the required components to be mastered through scaffolding and fading i.e. gradually withdrawing the support of the master or trainer and making the student self-regulated and skillful to articulate; reflect, explore and create the new areas and develop the related domain of knowledge or cognition and skill through e-learning strategies and methods for effective learning environment in distance and traditional institutions as well as in open and flexible learning environments frameworks (VLEF) by utilizing toolkits of e-learning web-based or online education and training at school level or any practical and skill related domain of knowledge (schooling) such as professional and vocational knowledge and skill. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

25. 10. Findings: The most important findings of the study when synthesized is that cognitive apprenticeships are very effective and efficient methods of pedagogy particularly for the skill based subjects of science and mathematics to be thought through these methodologies. It can be used in polytechnics or Vocational skills developments and schooling or training centres such as teacher training through ICT –integration. (Yousaf Khan, 2013) COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

26. 10. Conclusion: The conclusion of the study is that cognitive apprenticeship is an effective and efficient pedagogy for schooling in open and flexible ICT-rich learning environment schooling but it requires teacher training in ICT-integrated curriculum through cognitive apprenticeship methodologies. 11. Suggestions: The researcher suggests and propose that cognitive apprenticeships may be used at school level for open and flexible learning to develop the cognitive and metacognitive skills (toolkits) of the students. It can also be used in technical and vocational schooling as well as teacher training in open and flexible learning environments. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

27. 13. Recommendations: The researcher recommends to the stakeholders that the cognitive apprenticeships must be further explored to design the lesson, courses and curriculum at school level and technical courses based on these pedagogies to make the schooling more open and flexible in ICT-rich environments. The proposed model developed in the study and framework of cognitive apprenticeship in open flexible schooling is as under: (Figure: 2) COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

28. 14. Significance of the study The study is significant because it can be used as a model for instructional design and pedagogy in ICT-rich open and flexible education and training at school level as well as a model for andragogy in OERs (Open Education Resources) and MOOCs (Massive Online Courses) through learning management system (LMS) to be developed for virtual learning environments by software developers and programmers. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

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30. Khan, Y (2000): Millennium 2000 Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counseling for B.Ed. Shaheen Book Agency, Nishat Chowk, Mingora Swat. Khan, Y (2008): Advanced Educational Psychology. Higher Education Commission, Islamabad (Unpublished project of HEC). Khan, Y (2010): Critical Analysis of Newly introduced science curriculum Vs old science curriculum at SSC level in NWFP. M.Phil thesis (unpublished). Institute of Education and Research University of Peshawar. Khan, Y (2013): Analysis of teacher training and education program for ICT-integration in Pakistan. A case study: 27 th AAOU Annual Conference, AIOU, Islamabad. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING

31. THANKS