1. BEHAVIOUR Behaviour is difficult to define. –It has been a subject of debate for many years. –Compulsive evasion by most authors Man lives in an environment where he is being acted on by uncountable number of stimuli through his specialized sense organs.

2. BEHAVIOUR These stimuli, some of which emanate from within the organism), may cause them to react to his environment. It is this reaction that is called behaviour.

3. BEHAVIOUR In this lecture, we shall use the term behaviour to refer to the things we do. –all observable, measurable activities, –responses, –reactions, –movements, –operations (overt) and the –mental/ cognitive (covert) processes (if it could be operationally defined and inferred) that inform them.

4. BEHAVIOUR Man’s higher standing on the evolutionary scale makes his behaviour more complex than other organisms. Fresh complication is introduced by the fact that “we feel” and “know”. mental activityAgain, we possess the ability to distinguish right from wrong and so our actual behaviour often appears to be the result of certain mental activity.

5. BEHAVIOUR While some theorists such as the strict behaviour advocate for restriction of the definition of behaviour to only observable measurable ones. others (such as the cognitive Psychologists) argue for the inclusion of covert mental processes

6. BEHAVIOUR AS AN ASPECT OF ATTITUDE COGNITIVE mental processes (thinking, knowledge, memory, judgment etc). –The word cognitive comes from cognition, which is an act or process of knowing. –Cognition includes attention, memory, reasoning, judgment, imagination, thinking, and some people include speech. CONATIVE ( Ability to initiate a goal directed behavior)……..BEHAVIOR AFFECTIVE (emotions/ feeling domain of behaviour)

7. ATTITUDE - DEFINITION Several definitions Review a few –“ An attitude is a psychological tendency we express when we evaluate something or someone” (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993) Quoted in Matlin, M. W (1999;510) –“Learned predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner to a particular person, behavior, belief or thing” Quoted in Feldman, R. S (1996; 605)** –“ is a mixture of belief and emotion that predisposes a person to respond to other people, objects, or institutions in a positive or negative way ”. Coon, D (1995:661)*** 1 st KEYWORDS –Tendency**** –Predisposition general inclination or likelihood liability to something: a liability or tendency to do something, for example, behave in a particular way

8. ATTITUDE - DEFINITION 2 nd Key Evaluate* –examine and judge: (its value, quality, importance, condition) We evaluate the condition of patients, their worth etc before we deal with them) 3 rd Key (OBJECT) we evaluate –something or someone –person, behavior, belief or thing –other people, objects, or institutions 4 th Key –positive or negative way”. –Means attitude may be positive or negative. Summary –Tendency/ Learned predisposition –Evaluate (Cognitive) –Positive/ negative predisposition –(ATTITUDE OBJECT) Something/ someone/ person/ behavior/ belief/ institution Institution, friends, patients, lecturers, School, job etc Definition attempt

9. ATTITUDE – DEFINITION –Attitude could be defined as a (learned) predisposition/ tendency to behave favorably or unfavorably in response to an attitude object (people, places, institutions, issues, events etc) most often after evaluation. –ATTITUDES are most often expressed in our behaviors. –Example, consider all the important people in your life, you would realize you have vastly different attitude towards each one of them, depending on the nature of your interaction with them. –These attitudes may range from highly positive as in the case of lover, to extremely negative, as with despised rivals.

10. ATTITUDE –Attitude is a –ve/+ve predisposition/tendency we acquire for an object, a person, event (called attitude object) as a result of evaluation (cognitive appraisal). –This becomes an acquired Potential (covert/ unexpressed behavior). Interaction of our Cognition and affective domains results in some acquired potential/ propensity to behave in a positive or negative way towards the attitude object.

11. EXAMPLES Ur attitude towards your lecturer –Cognition/ knowledge – infor/ experience etc –Affectivity – like/ dislike –Conative – overtly behave respectfully - +ve Attitude towards KOJO ANTWI –KOFI ANAN –OSAMA BIN LADEN

12. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE All three aspects (Cognitive, Affective and Co- native) must almost always be in harmony. Cognitive DissonanceLack of harmony (Cognitive Dissonance) may persist for some time but eventually may lead to Behavioural Change where all three aspects of behaviour are brought into harmony. Example, shaking somebody you don’t really like because of social circumstance. –“THE PROMISE” Angelo’s current mother Uneasy calm at the Party (Amor and Claudia)

13. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE COGNITIVE DISSONANCE** is a concept proposed by a social Psychologist Leon Festinger (1957), Theory refers to an individual’s motivation to reduce the discomfort (Dissonance) caused by inconsistent thoughts – aspects – emphasis mine. –According to the theory we are likely to feel uneasy if we can’t justify to ourselves the difference between what we belief and what we do –We can reduce cog distortion in one of 2 ways – change our behaviour/ attitude

14. TYPE OF BEHAVIOUR INHERITEDINHERITED and LEARNEDLEARNED behaviours

15. INHERITED BEAVIOUR Simple organisms may show complex inherited behaviour patterns, which are often referred to as instinctual. They may facilitate feeding, as in the web – building of spiders, or ensure successful reproduction, as in courtship behaviour in fishes

16. INSTINCT THEORISTS INSIST that we are born with certain instincts Defined as –Inborn, inflexible, goal-directed behaviour that is characteristic of an entire species). Early Psychologist (William McDougall; 1871 – 1938) embraced instinct theories as the sole explanation of motivation of behaviour. Acc. to INSTINCT THEORIES, –people (are motivated to) engage in certain unlearned behaviors because of GENETIC PROGRAMMING. –Innate motivation inherited through genes –At appropriate time it evolves – Examples Mating behaviors of animals Migrating behaviour of animals – fishes for example

17. INSTINT & GENETIC MOTIVATION –Best example is the “IMPRINTING” of baby geese to their mother (what is it?) –Discovered by Etiologist Konrad Lorenz (study animal behaviour patterns) –This is an example of inherited behaviour

18. UNLEARNED BEHAVIOUR Lorenz theorized that many animal and human tendencies are based on latent genetic patterns and are triggered by events in the environment. Ethologists hold that much of what animals know is innate (instinctive). Examples –*digger wasp, is programmed to find and capture only honey bees for reproduction* –**Baby birds – whom to go for food & how the they all behave during feeding – are genetic**….Penguine. –Young fowls are born able to recognize and flee from the silhouette of hawks. –***Mating in animals such as fishes & birds – right x’tics at the right time*** and –Imprinting in baby geese (Next Slide)

19. IMPRINTING Baby geese are born to imprint – follow the mother as soon as they are able to walk. –Konrad discovered that the stimulus eliciting this instinctive behaviour is the first moving object that the newly hatched goslings see, which in nature is invariably the mother. –By separating newborn goslings from the mother and showing them other moving things, Lorenz got them to faithfully follow a variety of “peculiar” objects such as a wooden box on wheels, and even himself.

20. ANOTHER EXAMPLE - ATTACHMENT One other example of modern instincts theory is John Bowlby’s view that babies have built – in tendencies to become attached (emotional bond) to the adult who cares for them… (1982) Acc to Wortman and Loftus (1992), this serves the important function of encouraging infants to stay close to their parents, thus affording them protection. Human instincts are less rigid and automatic than those of many other species – because they are more open to variation due to different learning experiences. They explain - Unlike imprinting in baby geese, which occurs quickly and cannot be changed once established, the attachment of human babies to their parents –is a product of a great many hours of interaction, –leaves room for attachment to other caregivers, –and can vary greatly in quality due to learning.

21. SMS 354… MOTIVATION –They thought just as animals display instinctive behaviour patterns, such as migration or mating behaviors, human behavior was also motivated by INBORN BEHAVIOUR REPERTOIRES

22. INHERITED /UNLEARNED BEHAVIOUR Humans are also said to be born with some inherited behaviours – present at birth. They are reflex movements that are inborn and made without thinking. They are Adaptive for example human infants cling instinctively to their mothers. As mentioned most of them come as reflex (involuntary) responses in infants but some seem to get extincted after sometimes.

23. INHERITED /UNLEARNED BEHAVIOUR Example include swallowing and sucking reflexes, rooting (turning the head towards the direction of touched cheek); grasp (hand automatically grasp); and walking reflexes (walking movements when held upright with feet touching a firm surface).

24. INHERITED /UNLEARNED BEHAVIOUR The rest are startle reflex –(hands are clenched, and elbows are bent to bring forearm in when startled) when they are startled by sudden noise or bright light. Moro falling reflex –(catching movement in the incidence of sudden movement). There are many more of such reflex responses in infants but some seem to get extincted after sometimes. According Pamela Minett (1994)***, these reflexes are replaced by actions which the baby has to learn by age 3 months. –For example the walking reflexes disappear long before the child learns to walk.

25. INHERITED /UNLEARNED BEHAVIOUR these inherited actions of many of these kinds are modified by experience, This allows for an animals behaviour to be better suited to a complex and changing environment. Human inherited behaviours are no exceptions.

26. LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Some other behaviours are learned. Lion’s cubs, for example, learn to hunt by watching and copying their parents, while many insectivorous birds learn to avoid eating unpalatable prey through trial and error. The well – developed brain of humans and other animals such as elephants, allow them to learn a wide range of complex behavioural patterns.

27. LEARNED BEHAVIOURS These include complex social, manipulative, and mental skills, and in humans, speech. Learned behaviour patterns may be transmitted culturally from generations to generations.

28. LEARNED BEHAVIOURS The conclusion on these two types of behaviours is that the debate (Nature – nurture debate) is still ongoing.

29. CONCLUSION - BEHAVIOUR It could however be safe to say that whiles some behaviour are inherited, others are learned and even those that are inherited are acted upon by experience to make it more adaptable. So there is no clear cut distinction between the two, thus, it’s a daunting – almost impossible task to determine how much of each; NATURE AND NURTURE contributes to a given behaviour

30. MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR FROM VARIOUS PSYCHOLOGY, PERSPECTIVES/ THEORISTS. We are concerned not so much with what the organism does, nor with how it accomplishes what it does, as we are with why it acts as it does. Psychologists do not agree on the motivation of the behaviour. Depending on the theoretical leaning, or school of thought they come from, they may explain motivation differently. Schools of thoughts used here refer to psychologists who held similar views and had similar approaches to the study of psychology.

31. MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR Each school developed around one eminent thinker and in most cases, in and around a geographical area. In founding stages of psychology many schools sprang up, namely the structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism and cognitive psychology. Some died with the death of their leaders, but those that exist today do explain motivated behavior differently.

32. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY Psychodynamic theory was born out of the clinical practice of a medical doctor (neurologist by training) who was called Sigmund Freud (under 1856 –1939). It was concerned with neurotic patients. Basic tenet Contrary to our view that we are rational and exercise free will, behavior is motivated by unconscious psychological forces (sexual instincts and urges) that are not available to the rational, conscious part of our mind.

33. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY MOTIVATION: That is to say that the unconscious conflict within the individual influences much of human thought and actions.

34. BEHAVIOURISM The name speaks for itself, Behaviour. One assumption is that all behavior occur in response to stimulation and that all actions and feelings are elicited by unconditioned or conditioned stimuli. SCHOLARS John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner, Edward lee Thorndike, etc

35. BEHAVIOURISM BASIC TENET –Psychology should study only observable measurable behavior - Nothing more. Anything that cannot be defined located measured cannot be an object of scientific study. They emphasize environmental determinant of behaviour. VIEW ON MOTIVATED BEHAVIOURAL –Behavior is motivated by reward and punishment that usually precede, and come after the behavior

36. HUMANISTIC/ EXISTENTIAL HUMANISTIC Humanists were referred to as the “third forced”. Humanistic the psychology is closely related to the existential psychology because both schools are concerned with subjective experiences insist that people must learn how to realize their human potential.

37. HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES They insist that human beings with intrinsically good as opposed to psych dynamic view and that behavior to them is motivated by the urge to achieve one’s potential and self actualize. Some scholars include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

38. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Is one of the newest fields of psychology. It began in the 60’s. While behaviours believe that mental processes could not be studied scientifically, cognitive psychologists believed otherwise. That is to say that mental process should be studied scientifically.

39. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Tenet They argue, although we cannot observe cognitive processes directly we can observe behavior and make inferences about the kind of cognitive processes that underlie the behavior. Behaviour is motivated by cognitive/ mental processes.

40. NORMALITY/ ABNORMALITY OF BEHAVIOUR What majority (culture, education etc) consider normal. Caution! Not always the case. –Statistically – Normal distribution curve Eg. Behavior in the stadium cannot be acceptable in church or hospital Causes impairment in the normal social / occupational or academic functioning Behavior causes personal distress Causes social distress/ impairment

41. SUMMARY Behaviour – reaction to stimuli that impinge on our senses –Everything we do –Define to include mental (covert processes) Aspects of attitude (Cognitive; Affective; Conative) –Harmony/ cognitive dissonance & Beh. Change TYPES – Learned & Inherited (Genetic) Motivation –Psychodynamic –Behaviorists –Humanistic –cognitive