1. Classical, Renaissance & Irish Republicanism “Republicanism inspires. And it terrifies. Maybe it no longer does in most Western societies. But it does in Northern Ireland” Norman Porter The Republican Ideal: Current Perspectives (1998:1)

2. Introduction: So what do we know about democracy from our discussions, lectures, presentations and readings etc. so far? “a democracy is a state where freeman & the poor, being in the majority, are invested with the power of the state” Aristotle - Politics, IV, 4. “…invested with…” ? In Plato’s writings (Republic, V111, 10) Socrates stated “democracy comes into being after the poor have conquered their opponents, slaughtering some and banishing some, while to the remainder they give an equal share of freedom and power”. Aquinas defined “democracy as popular power, where ordinary people, by force of numbers, governed -oppressed - the rich; the whole people acting like a tyrant” according to Raymond Williams’s Keywords. “Democracie, when the mulititude have government” - Fleming(1576) Up to the 19th century ‘democracy’ was a “strongly unfavourable term”- only becomes a positive term in the 19th and 20th centuries.

3. Lecture Outline According to David Held there are two strands of: Developmental Republicanism: Jean Jacques Rousseau Protective Republicanism: Niccolo Machiavelli The Prince by Niccolò Machiavelli http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1232 Origins in: Athenian city-state & Roman Republic, respectively. Issues: the divine/natural right of royalty and ecclesiastic power. Social Contract and the ‘general will’. The challenge: to engage Irish Republicanism through the retrospective lens of classical and renaissance and bourgeois republicanism.

4. Rome and the Roman Republic Romans overthrew their Etruscan conquerors in 509 B.C.E. In 449 B.C.E., government leaders agreed some of Rome's most important laws into what they called Twelve Tables, the first Roman written laws. Men and women were citizens in the Roman Republic, but only men could vote. Made citizens of some of those from conquered lands. Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.E.), [re Carthage, in what is now Tunisia] centred on control of trade in the western Mediterranean Sea. http://www.ushistory.org/civ/6a.asp According to David Held the Roman Republic “set out a model of governance which linked liberty not only with virtue but also with civic glory and military power. Rome offered a conception of politics which connected political participation, honour and conquest,[…] could defeat the claims made in monarchical politics that only a king, enjoying personal authority over his subjects, could guarantee law, security and the effective projection of power” (Models of Democracy, p 34)

5. Roman Forum, from 7 th century B.C.

6. Rome and Republicanism Meaning of the Roman republic? A form or governance with an elective process involving patricians and plebeians. The first type of its kind, lasted 500 years (510-23 BC) Key Components of the Roman Republic Two consuls were elected to serve for a year, the equivalent to the former kings of Rome, the sovereign prior to the Republic. Consuls advised by a 300 member senate selected from the wealthiest Roman families. Plebeian Council – or Peoples Assembly where ‘common people’ or plebeians elected their own leaders, magistrates et al. Tribunes - the representatives of the Plebeian Council. They could veto laws made by the Senate.

7. Governors – as part of Rome’s imperial expansion it representatives required to act as local rulers, so governors were appointed by the Senate to oversee the collection of taxes & sometimes act as pro-consuls. Aediles - a city official responsible for the maintenance of public buildings, public festivals et al. Politicians wanting to be elected to a higher office, e.g. consul, would become aediles to gain popularity. Censors. Their role was to oversee the census and public morality. The Roman Republic (proof that a web search can be of some value) http://www.ducksters.com/history/ancient_rome_republic.php http://www.ducksters.com/history/ancient_rome_republic.php Remaining questions: The period in which the senate existed as effective governance? Specific duties of the two consuls? How were members of the Plebeian Council elected, did they have the power of veto in the senate- the scope and limitation of their power?

8. Curia Julia: Senate House

9. Following the demise of the Roman Empire/Republic a Christian-world view took centre stage in most the land mass now known as Europe. St Augustine’s City of God (A.D 410-423) written in the period of the Roman Empire’s decline is a strong statement in favour of ecclesiastical power. St Thomas Aquinus (1225-74) revisited the ecclesiastical versus secular struggle after Aristotle et al get translated into Latin from the Arabic after several centuries of been out of print within medieval Europe. Medieval republicanism is first associated with a number of northern Italian city states during the 11 th century who establish consuls or administrators in defiance of the papacy. Then towards the end of the 12 th century ruling councils the consular system is replaced by ruling councils with the main source of power vested in officials entitled Podesta (Florence, Padua, Pisa, Milan and Siena)

10. Venice, the only city-republic to survive as a ‘self-governing regime’ until the 18th century, the others been eclipsed by ‘hereditary power’. For the first century of the Venetian republic the word ‘democracy’ was not use, not until Aristotle was translated in the mid 13th century, but pejoratively- i.e. ‘rabble’ (From Held’s Models of Democracy)

12. Republicanism: Two Strands Protective Republicanism – where a framework for self-rule for citizens is justified as a protection for individuals from oppressive rule by kings (or ‘princes’) or small minorities. In other words, democratic participation has instrumental importance (p. 44). Stems mainly from ancient Greek polis. Marsilius of Padua -> Jean-Jacques Rousseau -> Mary Wollstonecraft. Developmental Republicanism – where the justification of citizenship is based on the benefits of participation as a means of self-expression and self development. In other words, democratic participation has intrinsic value (p. 48). Stems mainly from the Roman Republic. Machiavelli -> Montesquieu -> Madison. From Study Notes ( http://www.polity.co.uk/modelsofdemocracy/docs/SG- Part%20One-Classic-Models.pdf ) on Held’s Models of Democracy and the text itself. http://www.polity.co.uk/modelsofdemocracy/docs/SG- Part%20One-Classic-Models.pdf

13. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) Rousseau was a major figure in the European Enlightenment figure and a contributor to the Encyclodepie (see notes further on), but was later associated with a reaction against the more mechanistic tendencies of the Enlightenment. how considered a founding father of Romanticism- “I feel therefore I am”. Opened The Social Contract (1763) with the words “Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. One thinks himself the master of others, and still remains a greater slave than they. How did this change come about? I do not know. What can make it legitimate? That question I think I can answer”. Rousseau believed that the state owed its authority to the general will of the people. Opposed the (divine) right of monarchs. Argued that individual sovereignty is inalienable.

14. Addressed the meaning of the ‘social contract’ between government and governed, reciprocal rights and duties and questions of equality. Rousseau was critical of the notion of ‘democracy’ a la Athenian city-state as it did not make a clear distinction between legislative and executive functions and so was open to instability. In Book 3, Ch.5 of The Social Contract (1763) he stated that: “If we take the term [democracy] in its strict sense, there has never been a real democracy, and there never will be” He also remarked that: “The people of England regards itself as free; but it is grossly mistaken; it is free only during the election of members of parliament. As soon as they are elected, slavery overtakes it, and it is nothing. The use it makes of the short moments of liberty it enjoys shows indeed that it deserves to lose them” (Book 3, Ch,15) The Social Contract by Jean-Jacques Rousseau http://socialpolicy.ucc.ie/Rousseau_contrat-social.pdf

15. Social Contract Theory The idea of covenant, people and a divine power/ God. In Plato’s Crito, Socrates makes an argument why he had to stay in prison and accept the death penalty, rather than go into exile. The basis of Socrates argument was that he had made some sort of ‘social contract’ with the city-state and therefore he would abide by its laws/ruling rather than flee. Social contracts exist today in various forms of social/public contracts. Plato’s Crito http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/crito.html

16. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679) For Hobbes it was important that something akin to a ‘social contract’ existed between the sovereign and the people otherwise the disorder of nature would pertain. Hobbes’s Leviathan (written against the background of the English Civil War of the 1640s) argued for a strong, overarching and unified state. Believed the state to be the site of sovereignty. Defended a degree of state coercion and believed that the individual ought to surrender his/her rights to it in return for protection, security, etc., in order that the state could act as an effective ruler. Humans beings sought more “intense delight” – i.e. self-seeking.

17. Frontpiece of Hobbes’s Leviathan

18. Hobbes versus Rousseau For Hobbes sovereignty was pooled in the state. For Rousseau it was pooled in the majority. Neither placed limits on collective power, particularly in terms of the individual.

19. Women and Democracy "If all men are born free, how is it that women are born slaves? as they must be if the being subjected to the inconstant uncertain, unknown, arbitrary will of men, be the perfect condition of slavery?“ Mary Astell (1706) “Woman has the right to mount the scaffold; she must equally have the right to mount the rostrum” (1791) Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793) Mary Wollstonecraft’s (1759-97) A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (written in 1791 and published in 1792) extended Rousseau’s ideas to women- stressed role of education (‘manners’). Rejected R’s representation of woman in his best selling fictional work, Emile. A Vindication was rejected by many, but supported by William Godwin and Thomas Paine – a significant influence on John Stuart Mill’s The Subjugation of Women (). Mary had a child with Godwin- Mary Shelly author of Frankstein.

20. For Wollstonecraft liberty and equality were linked, that property and wealth can be a cause of ‘evil’ in society, challenged a ‘feminine ideal’ and argued that women ought to pursue social and political activities. Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) now regarded as the founding document of feminism. While best to read the original texts you can also listen to a podcast on Rousseau’s Social Contract as part of the ‘In Our Time’ series, also ones on Hobbes and Wollstonecraft: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b006qykl

21. Irish Republicanism “The first republicans in Ireland were Cromwellians. The statue of Cromwell outside the Palace of Westminster underscores to this day supremacy of parliament vis-à-vis the monarch” Martin Mansergh The Republican Ideal Regained(1998)

22. Wolf Tone’s Speech from the Dock (Extract) "I have laboured to create a people in Ireland by raising three millions of my countrymen to the rank of citizens. I have laboured to abolish the infernal spirit of religious persecution, by uniting the Catholics and Dissenters. To the former I owe more than ever can be repaid. The services I was so fortunate as to render them they rewarded munificently; but they did more: when the public cry was raised against me—when the friends of my youth swarmed off and left me alone—the Catholics did not desert me; they had the virtue even to sacrifice their own interests to a rigid principle of honour; they refused, though strongly urged, to disgrace a man who, whatever his conduct towards the government might have been, had faithfully and conscientiously discharged his duty towards them; and in so doing, though it was in my own case, I will say they showed an instance of public, virtue of which I know not whether there exists another example.“ Tone and the French Republican, Jacobite, influence. The Project Gutenberg eBook, Speeches from the Dock, Part I, by Various http://www.gutenberg.org/files/13112/13112-h/13112-h.htm

23. Robert Emmet’s Speech from the Dock (Extract) "Let no man dare, when I am dead, to charge me with dishonor; let no man attaint my memory, by believing that I could have engaged in any cause but that of my country's liberty and independence; or that I could have become the pliant minion of power, in the oppression and misery of my country. The proclamation of the Provisional Government speaks for our views; no inference can be tortured from it to countenance barbarity or debasement at home, or subjection, humiliation, or treachery from abroad. I would not have submitted to a foreign oppressor, for the same reason that I would resist the foreign and domestic oppressor. In the dignity of freedom, I would have fought upon the threshold of my country, and its enemy should enter only by passing over my lifeless corpse. And am I, who lived but for my country, and who have subjected myself to the dangers of the jealous and watchful oppressor, and the bondage of the grave, only to give my countrymen their rights, and my country her independence, am I to be loaded with calumny, and not suffered to resent it? No; God forbid!" Robert Emmet and the influence of the American Revolution The Project Gutenberg eBook, Speeches from the Dock, Part I, by Various http://www.gutenberg.org/files/13112/13112-h/13112-h.htm

24. The current Irish debate on the Republic How to the ideas we have been discussing intersects with the current contributions of Michael D. Higgins, Fintan O’Toole et al on the republic. Michael D.Higgins argues for the realisation of republican ideals in several publications e.g. Renewing the Republic (2012) and we will return to his ideas on citizenship later on in the module. Fintan O’Toole takes a far more sceptical view, as in Up the Republic: Towards a New Ireland (2012) which he edits. Raises interesting questions on the declaration of the Irish Republic: 1867,1916, 1948. Takes a lead from Philip Petit’s Republicanism (1999) and uses it as a yardstick to critique the Irish republic historically and as it now stands.

25. PROCLAMATION OF THE IRISH REPUBLIC (1867) “ The Irish People to the World We have suffered centuries of outrage, enforced poverty, and bitter misery. Our rights and liberties have been trampled on by an alien aristocracy, who treating us as foes, usurped our lands, and drew away from our unfortunate country all material riches. The real owners of the soil were removed to make room for cattle, and driven across the ocean to seek the means of living, and the political rights denied to them at home, while our men of thought and action were condemned to loss of life and liberty. But we never lost the memory and hope of a national existence. We appealed in vain to the reason and sense of justice of the dominant powers. Our mildest remonstrance’s were met with sneers and contempt. Our appeals to arms were always unsuccessful. Today, having no honourable alternative left, we again appeal to force as our last resource. We accept the conditions of appeal, manfully deeming it better to die in the struggle for freedom than to continue an existence of utter serfdom. All men are born with equal rights, and in associating to protect one another and share public burdens, justice demands that such associations should rest upon a basis which maintains equality instead of destroying it. We therefore declare that, unable longer to endure the curse of Monarchical Government, we aim at founding a Republic based on universal suffrage, which shall secure to all the intrinsic value of their labour” …………..continued.

26. “The soil of Ireland, at present in the possession of an oligarchy, belongs to us, the Irish people, and to us it must be restored. We declare, also, in favour of absolute liberty of conscience, and complete separation of Church and State. We appeal to the Highest Tribunal for evidence of the justness of our cause. History bears testimony to the integrity of our sufferings, and we declare, in the face of our brethren, that we intend no war against the people of England – our war is against the aristocratic locusts, whether English or Irish, who have eaten the verdure of our fields – against the aristocratic leeches who drain alike our fields and theirs. Republicans of the entire world, our cause is your cause. Our enemy is your enemy. Let your hearts be with us. As for you, workmen of England, it is not only your hearts we wish, but your arms. Remember the starvation and degradation brought to your firesides by the oppression of labour. Remember the past, look well to the future, and avenge yourselves by giving liberty to your children in the coming struggle for human liberty”. Herewith we proclaim the Irish Republic. The Provisional Government. Delivered to The Times in London on 5th of March, 1867 http://www.politics.ie/forum/history/39422-irish-republican-brotherhood-constitution-1867-a.html

27. Poblacht na h Éireann. The Provisional Government of the Irish Republic. To the people of Ireland. IRISHMEN AND IRISHWOMEN: In the name of God and of the dead generations from which she receives her old tradition of nationhood, Ireland, through us, summons her children to her flag and strikes for her freedom. Having organised and trained her manhood through her secret revolutionary organisation, the Irish Republican Brotherhood and through her open military organisations, the Irish Volunteers and the Irish Citizen Army, having patiently perfected her discipline, having resolutely waited for the right moment to reveal itself, she now seizes that moment, and, supported by her exiled children in America and by gallant allies in Europe, but relying in the first on her own strength, she strikes in full confidence of victory. We declare the right of the people of Ireland to the ownership of Ireland, and to the unfettered control of Irish destinies, to be sovereign and indefeasible. The long usurpation of that right by a foreign people and government has not extinguished the right, nor can it ever be extinguished except by the destruction of the Irish people. In every generation the Irish people have asserted their right to national freedom and sovereignty: six times during the past three hundred years they have asserted it in arms. Standing on that fundamental right and again asserting it in arms in the face of the world, we hereby proclaim the Irish Republic as a Sovereign Independent State, and we pledge our lives and the lives of our comrades-in- arms to the cause of its freedom, of its welfare, and its exaltation among the nations.

28. The Irish Republic is entitled to, and hereby claims, the allegiance of every Irishman and Irishwoman. The Republic guarantees religious and civil liberty, equal rights and equal opportunities to all its citizens, and declares its resolve to pursue the happiness and prosperity of the whole nation and of all its parts, cherishing all the children of the nation equally, and oblivious of the differences carefully fostered by an alien government, which have divided a minority from the majority in the past. Until our arms have brought the opportune moment for the establishment of a permanent National Government, representative of the whole people of Ireland and elected by the suffrages of all her men and women, the Provisional Government, hereby constituted, will administer the civil and military affairs of the Republic in trust for the people. We place the cause of the Irish Republic under the protection of the Most High God, Whose blessing we invoke upon our arms, and we pray that no one who serves that cause will dishonour it by cowardice, inhumanity, or rapine. In this supreme hour the Irish nation must, by its valour and discipline and by the readiness of its children to sacrifice themselves for the common good, prove itself worthy of the august destiny to which it is called. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Irish_Republic#The_text_of_the_Easter_Proclamation

29. In an order issued to the “officer in charge” of the Irish School of Wireless Telegraphy at the corner of O’Connell Street and Lower Abbey Street during the 1916 Rebellion, James Connolly instructs the officer that “The main purpose of your post is to protect our wireless station”. The first ‘radio’ broadcast in Ireland? For copy of the ‘order' written on 25/4/1916) see The Rebellion in Dublin April 1916. Eason & Son, Ltd. Dublin and Belfast. No date of publication.

30. Democratic Programme of the First Dail (1919) “We declare in the words of the Irish Republican Proclamation the right of the people of Ireland to the ownership of Ireland, and to the unfettered control of Irish destinies to be indefeasible, and in the language of our first President. Pádraíg Mac Phiarais, we declare that the Nation's sovereignty extends not only to all men and women of the Nation, but to all its material possessions, the Nation's soil and all its resources, all the wealth and all the wealth-producing processes within the Nation, and with him we reaffirm that all right to private property must be subordinated to the public right and welfare. We declare that we desire our country to be ruled in accordance with the principles of Liberty, Equality, and Justice for all, which alone can secure permanence of Government in the willing adhesion of the people”. Two Extracts on the Democratic Programme from the RTE Archive (seen at the time as an Irish Labour Party contribution/initiative) Cathal O'Shannon recalls the drafting and first reading of this document. http://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/920-first-dail-eireann-1919/289505-first-dail-william-obrien-t-d/ http://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/920-first-dail-eireann-1919/289505-first-dail-william-obrien-t-d/ Ernest Blythe, Richard Mulcahy, and Seán Mac Entee recall the first democratic programme how it came about and its impact. http://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/920-first-dail-eireann-1919/289523-an-chead-dail-1919/?page=2

31. Plaque in Glasnevin Cemetery- re the ‘democratic will’.

32. ‘Towards a Real Republic’ by Fintan O’Toole http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6iScCpqQ9Q

33. Key Readings for next Seminar: David Held Models of Democracy. Chapter 2: Republicanism, Self Government and the Active Citizen Philip Pettit Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government The Prince by Niccolò Machiavelli http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1232 The Social Contract by Jean-Jacques Rousseau http://socialpolicy.ucc.ie/Rousseau_contrat-social.pdf Republicanism: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/republicanism/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/republicanism/ ************ Fintan O’Toole [Editor] Up the Republic: Towards a New Ireland (2012) O’Toole draws on Pettit Republicanism in Ireland: Confronting Theories and Traditions by Iseult Honohan The Republican Ideal: Current Perspectives Edited with Introduction by Norman Porter Irish Republicanism: Good Friday & After By Daltun Ó Ceallaigh The Republic. The Irish Institute http://theirelandinstitute.com/republic/02/pdf/complete002.pdf Tom Garvan on An Irish republican tradition? http://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/handle/10197/2141/39_garvin.pdf?sequence=1

34. “I mean the subject matter of the lecture yes more to do !

35. Additional slides on Feudalism, the Enlightenment et al

36. C.P.E. as ideology "Ideologies are systems of ideas and beliefs that are used to provide moral justification for the economic and social relationships with an economic system“ (Hunt and Sherman. p.10.) Socio-Economic context of the time: Feudalism: “…a system of parcellised power based on property, with political and economic power united in a feudal lordship dominating and exploiting a dependent peasantry without the support of a strong central state”. Ellen Meiksins Woods (Empire of Capital). The ideological cement which sustained Feudalism- the Christian Paternalist Ethic (C.P.E).Metaphor of patriarchal father and paternal obligations.

37. Intellectual Project the Age: Enlightenment: An 18 th century (circa. 1725-75) ‘ European ’ intellectual project based on ideas of science, reason, liberty and progress. Centred on the intellectual work of three overlapping generations of (male) philosophes (men of letters, freethinkers, worldly in a universal sense, a ‘ secular intelligentsia ’ ). Centred in France, Germany, Scotland, England and spread to north American where it was key to the ideas of the founding fathers of the USA etc. Salons, several hosted by women. Advocated religious tolerance, opposed religious persecution- deist rather than atheist. A belief that ideas could contribute to change- engagement.

38. Initially sponsored by Louis XV and supported by Catherine the Great (Russia). However, they later withdrew their support and Clement XIII tried to have it banned. The Enlightenment was a major influence on the United Irish Movement. Some of the key texts circulated and published in the organisation’s UI’s paper The Northern Star.

39. The struggle between 'modernisation' (Republicanism) and 'tradition' (‘ancien regime’/absolutism); The transition from the feudal to the capitalist mode of production; Feudalism (Catholicism), Capitalism (Protestantism); The American (1776) and French Revolutions (1789); The Industrial Revolution in Britain (circa 1760 to 1840); The emergence of industrial, urban based society; Communication- printing (moveable type) crucial to its success (The Encyclopedie), a prototype of capitalist production dating from 1450s Germany. The Enlightenment and its Context:

40. Writings and illustrations of the Enlightenment collected and published in 35 volumes (25,000 copies) of The Encyclopedie (1751-1780), gave the project a coherence. Edited in Paris by Denis Diderot and Jean d ’ Alembert. Its printing moved to Switzerland (after Vol.8), Voltaire, leading figure, fled to England after falling out of favour with the French ruling elite. Written in the French, not Latin. http://diderot.uchicago.edu/e ncyclopedie/frontispice.jpg

41. The Enlightenment and the Study of Society Auguste Comte(1798-1857), the French maths/philosopher, developed a 'positive science' of society which he believed had been neglected as a subject for study. Coined the term 'sociology'. Can be deemed its main founder. In 1830 Comte introduced the term Positivism. A theory of knowledge based on experiment and investigation of evidence...of analysis of empirical data as opposed to abstract speculation. Believed that the laws which governed the world were capable of been observed. Positivism as an application of empiricism to the social.

42. Comte proposed a theory of historical stages: -The theological (supernatural explanation); -The metaphysical (philosophical abstraction); -The scientific...('positive truth'). Science the new religion. Destutt de Tracey had introduced the concept of ideology as meaning the ‘science of ideas”. Social/holistic rather than an individualistic approach. Comte was conscious of the need for social re-organisation following the disorder (or ‘terror’) of post-revolutionary France. As Comte was completing Cours de Philosophe (1830-1842) the camera was been ‘invented’.