1. Unit 8 - Motivation & Emotion

2. Motivational Theories & Concepts Motivation – involves goal directed behavior.

3. Motivation Style Intrinsic Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. (read a book out of enjoyment) Extrinsic Desire to perform a behavior b/c of promised rewards or threat of punishment. (Working only b/c you receive payment)

4. Extrinsic https://vimeo.com/54739845

5. Motivation Views from a leadership perspective Theory X Assumes that works are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money. Theory Y Assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity.

6. Drive Reduction Theory (Clark Hull) Homeostasis – a state of physiological equilibrium or stability. Drive – internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension (drive reduction theory) – Drive theories do not explain all motivation (ie. “thirst for knowledge”) – Motivation may exist without drive arousal (eating while not hungry) – Internal push

7. Incentive Theories Incentive – external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior. Emphasizes external factors External pull

8. Instinct - Evolutionary Theories Favor behaviors that maximize reproductive success. – Achievement, affiliation, dominance, aggression, sex drives. Adaptive Value for hunter/gather society – Dominance opportunities Affiliation Motive – need for belongingness

9. Arousal Theory People experience both very high levels of arousal and very low levels of arousal as being quite unpleasant. Low = boredom = motivated for arousal. High = reduce it Thus we seek optimal level of arousal.

10. Diversity of Human Motives Biological Motives – body needs, like hunger. – All people share Social Motives – achievement needs – Not all people share

11. Motivation of Hunger/Eating

12. Biological Factors in Hunger Regulation Walter Cannon (1912) discovers relationship between stomach contraction / hunger desire.

13. Brain Regulation LH & VMH = on/off switches (believed) Arcuate nucleus – hunger signals Paraventricular nucleus (PVN) - satiety signals neural circuits instead of anatomical centers

14. Glucose & Digestive Regulation glucose: simple sugar/energy source Glucostatic Theory – fluctuations in blood glucose level are monitored in the brain, where they influence the experience of hunger. Vagus nerve - cells in stomach signal wall stretching

15. Hormonal Regulation Insulin – secreted by pancreas, needed to extract glucose from blood. Ghrelin –causes stomach contractions and promotes hunger. Leptin – regulates body’s energy homeostasis (fat tissue increase, more leptin in blood). CCK – satiety hormone

16. Environmental Factors in Hunger Regulation Food Availability & Related Cues – Palatability – Quantity Available (Cafeteria Diet Effect) – Variety (sensory-specific satiety) As you eat a specific food, incentive value declines. – Presence of others Learned Preferences & Habits – some innate taste preferences (i.e. sweet, salty), but mostly learned through classical conditioning...difficult to extinguish. – Observational learning

17. Eating & Weight: Roots of Obesity Obesity – the condition of being overweight. BMI – Body mass index (kg/m^2) – 30+ is generally considered obese. Genetic predisposition – some people do inherit genetic vulnerability to obesity. Excessive eating & inadequate exercise. – must eat less/equal to what you burn!!* – trend = food consumption up, physical activity down

18. Cont. Sensitivity to external cues. – Normative Cues – indicates socially approved food intake, when, what, how much one should eat. – Sensory Cues – characteristics of the food itself. Obese people are specifically sensitive to this cue. Set Point – natural point of stability in body weight. Settling Point Theory: weight tends to drift around the level at which the constellation of factors that determine food consumption and energy expenditure achieve an equilibrium.

19. Assignment As you watch, take notes on specific examples of how cultural and economic factors influence America's fast food obsession. Using these examples, write a one page maximum reflection that: 1. details these factors at work (include examples!) 2. discusses the current and potential implications of our eating behavior 3. proposes your ideas for positive dietary change Try to include terminology from the unit as we study. In the case of absence, this documentary can be viewed free on both YouTube and Hulu.

20. Sexual Motivation & Behavior

21. The Human Sexual Response Masters & Johnson 1966, 1970 Divided sexual response cycle into four stage

22. Excitement Phase Physical arousal rises rapidly in response to stimuli. Vasocongestion – engorgement of blood vessels produce: – Males: erections – Females: swelling of the clitoris, expansion of vaginal lips, & vaginal lubrication.

23. Plateau Phase Physical arousal continues to build, much slower pace. Women: Vaginal entrance tightens Men: some fluid secreted at the tip of the penis (not ejaculate, though may contain sperm). Foreplay stage – Erections increase/decrease – Vaginal lubrication fluctuates.

24. Orgasm Phase Orgasm – when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area. BP and HR peak Males: one intense orgasm Females: subjective experiences similar to males. – More likely to be multiorgasmic – More likely to not experience orgasm Both report “subjective, positive experience” Orgasmic Consistency

25. Resolution Physical arousal returns to normal No orgasm = sexual tension (unpleasant) Refractory Period – time following male orgasms where they are largely unresponsive to further stimulation.

26. Sexual Activity – Breaking the myths statistically 35% men, 40% women between 18-94 no sex at all in previous year. 15% m/w had sex a few times per year to monthly. 15% m/w 2-3 times per week 4% m/w 4 or more times per week More than half of people 60-85 are sexually active. About 1/3 of 75-85 age range sexually active.

27. Evolutionary Analyses of Human Sexual Behavior Parental Investment – what each sex has to invest to produce & nurture offspring. – Time, energy, survival risk, forgone opportunities. Theory: small investors pursue sex more, larger investors are more conservative in mating behavior. Men will show more interest in sexual activity, variety of partners, willingness to engage in uncommitted sex.

28. Gender Differences in Patterns of Sexual Activity….statistically… Men: – Think about sex more – Initiate sex more – More frequent/varied sexual fantasies – Believe their sex drives are higher than females. – Overestimate females sexual interest in them. – Desire more partners Men (18), Women (5)

29. Gender Differences in Mate Preferences Men emphasize physical attraction, youthfulness. Women emphasize intelligence, ambition, income, social status.

30. Controversial Issue of Pornography Men > women in reporting enjoying erotic material (ie Porn). Sex crimes? – Porn plays a minor role, if any, in fueling sexual offenses. – Aggressive Pornography does increase male aggression towards women.

31. Mystery of Sexual Orientation Sexual Orientation – a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, or either sex. Heterosexual: man/woman Homosexual: woman/woman, guy/guy Bisexual: either Alfred Kinsey’s 7 Point Sexual Orientation Scale.

32. Homosexuality Environmental Theory Little empirical support Freud: male = gay when raised by a weak, detached, ineffectual father, who is poor heterosexual role model & overprotective mother. Classical Conditioned – Same sex stimuli paired with sexual arousal Biological Theory Evidence for genetic predisposition exists. Female sexuality appears to be more characterized by more plasticity (sociocultural factor influence)

33. Related Videos Diversity and Inclusion PSAS - 100 Orgasms a Day Choosing to be straght?

34. Achievement: In Search of Excellence

35. Achievement Achievement Motive – the need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others, and to meet high standards of excellence. – (desire to excel, esp. in competition with others) – David McClelland Measured with the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – Projective test where you respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that might reveal personal motive and traits – high AM correlates positively with career success

39. Situational Determinants of Achievement Behavior 1. Strength of one’s motivation to achieve success (stable aspect of personality) 2. estimate of probability of success 3. incentive value of success -tangible v. intangible rewards? pursuit of achievement increases as #2 and 3 go up highest with moderately difficult tasks...why?

40. Emotion & Happiness

41. The Elements of Emotional Experience What is emotion? 1.Subjective conscious experience (cognitive component) 2.Bodily arousal (physiological component) 3.Characteristic overt expressions (behavioral component)

42. The Cognitive Component: Subjective Feelings highly personal, subjective measured by verbal feedback some control of emotion is possible, but it also involves automatic responses includes evaluative process (classification: pleasant v. unpleasant) more negative than positive emotions; negative has more intense effect Affective Forecasting – efforts to predict emotional responses to future events.

43. The Physiological Component Autonomic Arousal – autonomic nervous system – galvanic skin response (GSR): increase in electrical conductivity of skin when sweating increases. – polygraph...issues? Neural Circuits – hypothalamus, limbic system (seat of emotion in the brain) – amygdala: conditioned fears – prefrontal cortex: voluntary control of emotions; pursuit of goals – mesolimbic dopamine pathway: pleasurable emotions – emotion depends on activity in a network of interacting brain centers.

44. The Behavioral Component Emotions are expressed in “body language”, or nonverbal behavior. Paul Ekman - easy to ID 6 fundamental emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust)...others prove more inconsistent facial-feedback hypothesis: specific facial expressions trigger the experience of specific emotions

47. Probably not true but sounds interesting…about Sadness.. When a person cries and the first drop comes from the right eye, it's happiness. Left eye, pain. Both, frustration.

48. Culture & Emotion Similarities: – identifying 6 fundamental emotions...biology or learning? – more accuracy when recognizing emotions expressed by own culture – evaluating emotions (i.e. pleasant v. unpleasant, expected v. unexpected) – physiological arousal accompanying emotion Differences: – perception, thoughts about, expression, and frequency – some Western emotions unrecognized/unnamed in other cultures – display rules: concern expression of emotion

49. READ THIS:

50. Theories of Emotion

51. James-Lange Theory of Emotion William James & Carl Lange The conscious experience of human emotion results from one’s perception of autonomic arousal. Opposite of common sense. Autonomic specificity – different emotions are accompanied by somewhat different patterns of autonomic activation.

52. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion Walter Cannon & Philip Bard Emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and to the autonomic nervous system. – Cortex creates the conscious experience of emotion, the ANS creates physical arousal

53. Schachter’s Two Factor Theory of Emotion Stanley Schachter Emotion is experienced by 2 factors: – Autonomic arousal – Cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When you experience visceral arousal, you search your environment for an explanation.

56. Evolutionary Theories Darwin: emotions developed b/c of adaptive value emotions largely innate Emotion evolved before thought Some fundamental emotions exist variations in intensity

58. Ingredients of Happiness Subjective Well-being: individuals’ personal perceptions of their overall happiness and life satisfaction. Not Factors = money, age, parenthood, intelligence/attractiveness Moderate Factors = Health, social activity, religion. Strong Factors = love/marriage, work, genetics/personality.

59. Happiness Conclusions Objective realities are not as important as subjective feelings. Happiness is relative, evaluated against people around you. Subjective well-being adapts. – Hedonic adaptation: the mental scale people use to judge pleasant/unpleasantness of experiences shifts so the baseline also changes. – (ex. More income doesn’t necessarily bring happiness.) TED Talk - Happiness