1. 1 Session 3: Understanding Motivation The session contents: The Significance of Motivation. The Significance of Motivation. Motivation Theory: Human Need & Satisfaction. Motivation Theory: Human Need & Satisfaction. Outcomes: Expectancy Theory. Outcomes: Expectancy Theory. The Psychological Contract. The Psychological Contract.

2. 2 The aims of this session are to: To stress the linkage between motivations, needs, and desires. To highlight the connection between outcomes, rewards and motivation. Identify the relationship between motivation and psychological contract. Recognize the limitations of any one approach to motivation.

3. 3 1- The Significance of Motivation: The concept of motivation addresses: what leads people to work well and hard, to persist and overcome obstacles, to engage with and be enthusiastic about their work. Example 3.1 page - 48 Activity 3.1

4. 4 It is helpful to think about your own motivation by focus on what is called It is helpful to think about your own motivation by focus on what is called : Critical incident analysis: Analyzing particular events from the past to help explain and/or predict reactions, behaviors or opinions related to things that are happening currently or might happen in the future. Analyzing particular events from the past to help explain and/or predict reactions, behaviors or opinions related to things that are happening currently or might happen in the future. Activity 3.2

5. 5 2- Motivation Theory: Human needs and satisfaction Once managers understand human needs, they can arrange the workplace in such a way that workers are motivated and can move towards satisfying these human needs.

6. 6 Hawthorne studies and the social needs model: Hawthorne studies carried out at the Hawthorne works by the Australian academic, Elton Mayo (1933). [box -3.1] It’s demonstrating the influence of social factors on workplace behavior. First stage: the illumination experiments to show the relationship between the amount and quality of lighting and the efficiency of workers. Second part: was the relay assembly test room study which focused on a small group of female workers, 13 periods of work studied during which changes were made to the hours of work, tea breaks and rest periods. The results initially production was increased The results initially production was increased and this increase was maintained. and this increase was maintained.

7. 7 A social model needs was based on at least two assumptions: Work represents an important mechanism through which people basic social needs are met. It provides a source of identity and an opportunity to meet other people, develop status and establish social relations. Individuals respond more to pressures made within their social group. Managerial controls are effective only to the extent that they influence the achievement of social needs. Managers need to arrange work so that it meets the need of people and not just the need of production help employees to meet their social needs. Managers need to arrange work so that it meets the need of people and not just the need of production help employees to meet their social needs. individual need are social not only economic individual need are social not only economic

8. 8 Maslow(1954)developed the idea of a Hierarchy of needs A motivation theory which explains that individuals are driven by a desire to satisfy a range of needs.These form a hierarchy of five categories & the suggestion is that unless lower level needs are satisfied first, higher level ones cannot be satisfied.

9. 9 Maslow hierarchy from a basic level upwards is: Physiological needs: food, drinks and shelter. Safety needs: protection against danger &threat Social needs: love, affection and acceptance as part of a social group. Esteem needs: to have high self-esteem and the respect of others (prestige, status). Self-actualization needs: to realize our potential and develop skills, to become what we believe we are capable of becoming.

10. 10 One of implications of Maslow theory is that the higher-order needs for esteem and self- actualization provide the greatest motivation because they grow in strength after the other are satisfied.The lower order needs weaken once they satisfied. Table 3.1 simple prescriptions based on a hierarchy of needs. [page – 53] Masslow needs hierarchy has been criticized (p - 53)..

11. 11 Herzberg (1959): Herzberg et al. (1959): They asked people to recall times when they had felt satisfied and motivated by their work, and times when they had felt dissatisfied and demotivated, then asked their subjects to describe what factors had caused these feelings. [figure 3.1 / page 54] [figure 3.1 / page 54]

12. 12 Hygiene factors : Hygiene factors : The factors which will demotivate staff if they are absent or unsatisfactory, but which in themselves do not act as long – term motivators. The factors which will demotivate staff if they are absent or unsatisfactory, but which in themselves do not act as long – term motivators. Supervision. Supervision. Working conditions. Working conditions. Interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal relationships. Pay and job security. Pay and job security. Company policies. Company policies.  He argues that improvement in some areas (hygiene factors) would help to remove dissatisfaction but it would not necessarily increase satisfaction.  He argues that improvement in some areas (hygiene factors) would help to remove dissatisfaction but it would not necessarily increase satisfaction.  According to Herzberg; hygiene factors play little part in motivating employees. they are important to maintain in any organization at a reasonable level,and people are expect them to be there,but improving or introducing them will not increase job satisfaction.  According to Herzberg; hygiene factors play little part in motivating employees. they are important to maintain in any organization at a reasonable level,and people are expect them to be there,but improving or introducing them will not increase job satisfaction.

13. 13 Motivation factors: Motivation factors: The factors which motivate people to work to meet personal, group and/or organizational goals. The factors which motivate people to work to meet personal, group and/or organizational goals.Achievement. Recognition. Recognition. The work itself. Responsibility. Advancement and growth. An important point is the suggestion that (de)motivators vary in duration of effect. (example p-55)

14. 14 The discussion of Herzberg raises some important general points about motivation at work (page - 56) As with all motivation theories,the model has drawn both As with all motivation theories,the model has drawn both support &criticism (p-56). support &criticism (p-56).

15. 15 Out comes: Expectancy theory: The theory that an important factor in people’s motivation is the perceived link between the effort they put into work and the rewards they receive for it. Expectancy theory focuses on the link between effort and reward. For a reward to affect a person decision to exert effort, that person must believe that the effort will increase the likelihood of obtaining the reward.  Figure 3.2 / page – 57 illustrate the chain that link between effort & reward  Figure 3.3 / page – 57 adds a third element to the chain called (performance) when a reward is given its usually for the result of the effort rather than for the effort itself.

16. 16 To summaries, if you want to improve motivation at work, expectancy theory implies that you need to consider three factors: To summaries, if you want to improve motivation at work, expectancy theory implies that you need to consider three factors: The link between effort and performance. The link between performance and rewards/costs. The link between performance and rewards/costs. The types of reward/cost available. The types of reward/cost available.

17. 17 Linking effort and performance: The weaker link between effort and performance the less motivation will be in an organization. The weaker link between effort and performance the less motivation will be in an organization. Expectancy theory suggests that any attempt to improving the motivation will be fail if attention is not paid to the relationship between effort & performance. Factors affecting the strength of the link between effort and performance : [figure 3.4 – page 58] Ability & Skill Goals Resources Time Job design

18. 18  Intrinsic reward (people internal motivation,they don’t have to be given by somebody else, include a sense of achievement,a feeling of having learned something or having performed a worthwhile job (enjoyment, satisfaction& learning).  Intrinsic reward (people internal motivation,they don’t have to be given by somebody else, include a sense of achievement,a feeling of having learned something or having performed a worthwhile job (enjoyment, satisfaction& learning).  Extrinsic reward (what organizations formally provide, Are those which have to be given by someone else, include the Are those which have to be given by someone else, include the offer or withholding of such benefits as pay increase, development and offer or withholding of such benefits as pay increase, development and training opportunities and promotions. training opportunities and promotions. (page -59) (page -59)

19. 19 Equity Theory : The theory developed by ADAMS,He proposed in his development of equity theory that individuals compare the relationship between their inputs and the outcomes with those of other people and their own past experience ( Example 3.2).. Expectancy theory offers a number of valuable lessons about motivation (P -60\61). The expectancy& the other motivation theories emerged at a time when economic &political conditions were quite different, TIMES HAVE CHANGED.

20. 20 4-The psychological contract: The agreement between two parties, such as an employer and an employee, that covers terms and conditions of the employment relationship. These will include the expectations that each one has of the other and may form part of a formal contract of employment. A psychological contract usually also covers other aspects of the relationship, which may or may not be documented. (P -62) For example,in return for performing well in a job,an employee may expect rewards in the form of training, additional pay.

21. 21 The psychological contract is a ‘met expectations’ model ‘met expectations’ model that considers the fit between expectations of employees and employers. (figure 3.5) and employers. (figure 3.5) These expectations can be transactional, such as pay or hours, or they can be relational,such as trust, commitment. These expectations can be transactional, such as pay or hours, or they can be relational,such as trust, commitment, honesty& equity. If the employees and employers do not share these mutual expectation, problems are likely to be emerge (p-63/64) (p-63/64)

22. 22 So you need to understand and manage mutual expectations. There is no universal answer are provided by any of the approaches to what motivates different people in different work contexts.

23. 23 Session 4: Job design Contents: Contents: Are jobs really designed? Are jobs really designed? The job characteristics model The job characteristics model The socio-technical systems approach The socio-technical systems approach Employee involvement and empowerment Employee involvement and empowerment

24. 24 This session addresses the way jobs are designed and who they might be redesigned to increase employee satisfaction, productivity and motivation. The aims of this session are to: Evaluate the job characteristics model and its implications for job design. Explain that job develops overtime and that this has implications for motivation. Examine critically current practice in job design.

25. 25 Are jobs really designed? Job design: The way in which of tasks,duties, responsibilities and accountabilities are combined to make up a particular job of work. The way in which of tasks,duties, responsibilities and accountabilities are combined to make up a particular job of work. ( Is concerned with how tasks are co-coordinated in order to make complete jobs. It looks at how work might be organized or reorganized to meet the social needs of individuals and the operational needs of organizations). ( Is concerned with how tasks are co-coordinated in order to make complete jobs. It looks at how work might be organized or reorganized to meet the social needs of individuals and the operational needs of organizations). Activity 4.1 p – 71.

26. 26 It is good practice for a manager to be proactive and to review jobs periodically to see how they have developed rather than waiting until problems arise. There are certain critical times for reviewing jobs and their content: When major organizational changes are taking place. When recruitment is about to take place. During an annual appraisal, this gives employees an opportunity to review their jobs with their managers or colleagues.

27. 27 The job characteristics model : A method of describing a job, originally developed by Hackman and Oldham (1976), by analyzing its key dimensions, how these contribute to the psychological states of the job holder, and how these states in turn affect the outcomes for the job holder of doing the work. This model remains significant because of the inclusion of job characteristics that looks at the relationship between core job characteristics, Employee’s psychological states and key outcomes. Figure 4.1 p – 73 the job characteristics model

28. 28 In the following we will address the Core job dimensions : The three elements defined by Hackman& Oldham in their job characteristics model which enable job design to be undertaken in a structured& rational way. 1-Skill variety: the degree to which a job includes a variety of activities and therefore requires the jobholder to use a number of different skills and talents. 2-Task identity: the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. It is about doing a job from beginning to end. 3-Task significance: the degree to which a job has an impact on the lives or work of other people, whether within the organization or in the external environment.

29. 29 Meaningfulness at work: Combining of the core job dimensions - Skill variety, Task identity,Task significance together shape the extent to which work is felt to be and to the individual. Combining of the core job dimensions - Skill variety, Task identity,Task significance together shape the extent to which work is felt to be meaningful, valuable and worthwhile to the individual. Autonomy: Autonomy: The degree to which a job provides freedom, independence and discretion to the individual. The degree to which a job provides freedom, independence and discretion to the individual. Feedback : It help people to form an image of themselves and how well they are doing. It help people to form an image of themselves and how well they are doing.

30. 30 Feedback can be either intrinsic or extrinsic: Extrinsic feedback: comes from outside the job, such as praise from manager when a difficult situation has been handled well. comes from outside the job, such as praise from manager when a difficult situation has been handled well. Intrinsic feedback: comes from knowing that you personally have been effective comes from knowing that you personally have been effective when people are aware of their own performance, recognize their strengths and weaknesses and take appropriate action to modify them as they feel appropriate. when people are aware of their own performance, recognize their strengths and weaknesses and take appropriate action to modify them as they feel appropriate.

31. 31 Calculating the motivating potential of a job: Motivating potential score (MPS): A technique for assessing how motivating a job will be for the holder. A technique for assessing how motivating a job will be for the holder. The job characteristics model of Hackman &Oldham calculates an MPS based on the five dimensions. = MPS = (Skill Varity +Task identity +Task significance) / 3 × Autonomy × Feedback  Three principles of job design [p -78]  Three principles of job design [p -78]

32. 32 The model suggests that the motivating potential of jobs can be increased by employing certain practices to enrich the working life of employees : Job enrichment: Job enrichment: Adding variety to a job to make it more interesting, demanding, challenging and developmental for the job holder. Adding variety to a job to make it more interesting, demanding, challenging and developmental for the job holder. for example : for example : Combining tasks. Forming natural work units. Giving increased responsibility. Vertical loading. Opening feedback channel.

33. 33 The social-technical systems approach: An approach to job design and job analysis developed by the researchers at the Tavistock Institute in the UK, which suggests that each job exists within a broader context consisting of, among other things, the technology and the culture of the group and organization. This means that any actions relating to designing or redesigning jobs need to take account of this broader context, and to recognize the social and technical factors that influence the work and the way it is done.

34. 34 The approach was based on the notion that organizations can be thought of as The approach was based on the notion that organizations can be thought of as open systems that balance social and technical needs Open systems have the following characteristics: 1-They are able to self-regulate. 2-They are flexible and adaptive. 3-They only survive through their interactions with external environment from which they obtain resources. Box 4.1 p – 80 (Principles of the socio-technical approach) Box 4.1 p – 80 (Principles of the socio-technical approach)

35. 35 Semi-autonomous work group:  A group of people working together, who to a large extent, monitor and control their own large extent, monitor and control their own activities, with little control imposed of them activities, with little control imposed of them from outside. (self regulating &participative) from outside. (self regulating &participative)  Semi-autonomous work group are part of the Humanization of Work Movement Approach to job design, although they have their limitations.

36. 36 Employee involvement: An approach to management whereby the opinions and ideas of employees are sought and their participation is encouraged the ultimate manifestation of such involvement is the delegation of some authority to employees for taking action or marking decisions. An approach to management whereby the opinions and ideas of employees are sought and their participation is encouraged the ultimate manifestation of such involvement is the delegation of some authority to employees for taking action or marking decisions. The two important forms (practices) of employee involvement are: The transfer of responsibility and decision making power to individual through the delegation of authority and resources. Empowerment: The transfer of responsibility and decision making power to individual through the delegation of authority and resources. Quality circles: A group of employees who meet regularly to identify and try to resolve issues relating to the quality of the products or services provided to customers. participation may come from various part of the organization.

37. 37 Quality circles have the following seven characteristics: 1-Membership is voluntary. 2-Meetings are regular. 3-Group usually small < 15. 4-Membership is drawn from people who do the same or similar tasks. 5-Leadership and structure can be decided by the group. 6-Group identifies problems and causes. 7-Group develops and produces solutions.