AP Review 2010 This review is based on the outline provided by College Board of the major topics in U.S. history.

Pre-Columbian Societies
Early Inhabitants of the Americas American Indian Empires in Mesoamerica, the Southwest, and the Mississippi Valley American Indian Cultures of North America at the time of European contact.

Early Inhabitants of the Americas
Archeologists believe they came tens of thousands of years ago across the Bering Strait when ice covered the water between Asia and North America. Because they came at different times and because they settled in different areas, they became extremely diverse. Probably the earliest immigrants ended up farthest south.

American Indian Empires in Mesoamerica, the Southwest, and the Mississippi
Each of the empires was built on two foundations: cultivated crops (maize, squash, beans) and trade. Each varied in technological advancements but all had relatively sophisticated societies. -Mesoamerica: Aztecs, Incans, Mayans -Southwest: Pueblo -Mississippi Valley: Mississippians/Mound Builders

An artist’s rendering of Tenochtitlan ca.1500 (Mesoamerican-Aztec)

Pueblo in Taos, New Mexico

An artist’s rendering of Cahokia Mounds (Mississippian)

American Indian cultures of North America at the time of European contact
The key point here is that the cultures were highly diverse. By the time Columbus arrived, historians estimate there were at least 300 different languages spoken in the Americas

Topic 2- Transatlantic Encounters and Colonial Beginnings– 1492-1690

First European contacts with Native Americans
Columbus led the way with initial contacts. His descriptions of “Indians” as being less intelligent than Europeans, friendly and submissive set the tone for early contacts. Columbus remarked that the natives believe he was a “celestial being” descended from the heavens. The contacts were generally friendly, but occasionally ended in violence. When violence occurred, the Native Americans were ill-equipped to deal with Spanish iron weapons and gunpowder. In addition, disease was introduced by the Europeans and this led to the decimation of many native peoples and cultures.

French Colonization of Canada
The French encounters with the Eastern Woodland Indians in Canada were relatively friendly because the French courier du bois needed the Indians for the fur trade and because New France was sparsely populated. The French Jesuits also sought to convert natives to Catholicism.

The Spanish Empire in North America
The Spanish encountered Indians in the area of Mesoamerica and the encounters were characterized by both violence and the destruction and/or enslavement of native cultures by the conquistadors and by peaceful attempts at conversion to Catholicism by the Dominicans. The Spanish ruled directly from the monarchy through the Council of the Indies(in Spain) and the viceroys (in America) The encomienda system (it gave the conquistador control over the native populations by requiring them to pay tribute from their lands, which were “granted” to deserving subjects of the Spanish crown. The natives often rendered personal services as well. In return the grantee was theoretically obligated to protect his wards, to instruct them in the Christian faith, and to defend their right to use the land for their own subsistence) got the conquistadores to settle down and function as colonists The Dominicans ( Catholics) established missions all over the Americas: notably Father Junipero Serra in California

English Settlement of New England, the Mid-Atlantic region, and the South
The early English settlements were generally small fortified villages that tried to keep Native Americans at a distance. To the left, Jamestown, VA In Jamestown, hostility developed between natives and colonists. Although there was a period of peace, 1622 brought an Indian retaliation (the massacre of 1622).

The New England Colonies
New England Colonies ( Mass.( Maine), Rhode Island, Conn., New Hampshire, ) were dominated by Calvinists. The “mother” colony was Massachusetts Bay, established to, as the Puritan ( remember to purify- still can fix the church) Governor John Winthrop put it, be a “city on a hill”-a beacon of Christianity for the whole world. New England from the first was to be a religious haven and a place for families to literally “plant” a new society. Massachusetts Bay was intolerant and proud to be a “Bible Commonwealth.” They were able to focus on religion and prosperity because of the healthy environmental conditions of the area Congregationalism defined the spread of settlements and helped foster town meetings. Religion is the center of life Small farmers and fisherman, and later on, shipping merchants, dominated the economy

Middle Colonies Middle Colonies were characterized by diversity and tolerance. Motives for emigration varied from colony to colony. Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey had a variety of religious groups and nationalities: Quakers, Jews, Anglicans, Catholics and Germans, Dutch, Swedes, English, Scots-Irish. These colonies were considered to be the “breadbasket” of the all the colonies because of their food crops. Pennsylvania had the best long-lasting relationship with Native Americans in the colonial period. Founded by William Penn, he bought native Americans land and allowed freedom of worship in Pennsylvania. Events of note: Zenger trial and Paxton boys.

Southern Colonies The Southern Colonies (Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia) Southern were characterized by their individualistic profit motives, their allegiance to England, their Anglican faith. A cash crop economy that included tobacco, rice, and indigo in this time period. Although slavery existed all over the colonies, ultimately it was the Southern colonies that fostered slavery for life. See Chart handout comparing and contrasting the colonies.

From Servitude to Slavery in the Chesapeake Region
Indentured servitude was used in the Chesapeake area as a way to secure labor in exchange for passage to America. Slaves were introduced in 1619 to Virginia. As the Europeans were becoming more able to pay their way ( reduction in transportation prices, improving economic conditions in England, competition from other colonies for servants ) and price of slaves dropped, indentured servitude fades away, especially in the Southern colonies. Slavery becomes the “ permanent” solution to the area’s chronic need for labor.

Religious Diversity in the Colonies
The colonies were a patchwork of religiously diverse communities and, as a result, the population of America increased quickly. People from all over the world wanted the freedom that was found in America and they began to move their homelands to America. Groups such as the Scotch-Irish were among the first to begin that emigration to America. As a result, religious persecution was beginning to diminish and religious freedom began to replace it.

Resistance to Colonial Authority
Bacon’s Rebellion -Nathaniel Bacon (upper class but not part of the “in crowd”) led a western rebellion against Governor Berkley of Virginia for the latter’s failing to protect the western colonists from Indian attack. A royal investigation followed that found a great deal of fault with the governor The Glorious Revolution -In the wake of the overthrow of Catholic King James II (formerly Duke of York) by William and Mary (his sister and her hubby), the New England colonists rebelled against the governor of the Dominion of New England, Sir Edmund Andros. Anne Hutchinson- Hutchinson began to claim that good conduct could be a sign of salvation and affirmed that the Holy Spirit in the hearts of true believers relieved them of responsibility to obey the laws of God- it was considered blasphamy (Antinomianism) she was banished. Roger Williams- looked for religious freedom along with the fair treatment of Native Americans- Started Rhode Island

Topic #3- Colonial North America 1690-1754

Population Growth and Immigration
Colonial population grew from 250,000 to 2.5 million, most born in America and thus loyal to America. In addition, several thousand immigrants came to America from places other than England, reinforcing a lack of allegiance to the crown.

Transatlantic Trade and the Growth of Seaports
Colonial cities served as mercantile centers ( remember mercantilism is basically exporting more than you import in order to accumulate gold and silver) or “entrepots” where British goods increasingly came to America. As a result of the mercantilist system trade from Britain increased by over 300% in the three decades before the Revolution. The effect was an “Anglicizing” American culture

The Eighteenth-century Back Country
Scots-Irish and German immigrants came by the thousands, going to the Appalachians and beyond. These folks became the pioneers of the colonial period.

Growth of Plantation Economies and Slave Societies
Plantations built on tobacco, rice, and indigo continued to be the dominant economic, social, and political institution in the southern colonies. Within each plantation, the owner tried to create an independent economy with craftsmen/artisans to maintain productivity. Slave societies developed especially on large plantations where the concentration of people allowed social “creole” customs to develop including a “black” form of Christianity.

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening
In America the leader of the Enlightenment was Ben Franklin, who popularized the logic and the science of natural law in his Poor Richard's Almanac. The belief that natural law applied to human society was popularized by Franklin through Cato’s Letters, authored by two English Whigs, Trenchard & Gordon.

The Great Awakening The Great Awakening, America’s first national experience, was a neo-Calvinist religious revival led in New England by Jonathan Edwards (“Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”) and spread through the rest of the colonies by the itinerant English preacher, George Whitefield It was the colonies attempt to become reconnect with God.

Colonial Governments and Imperial policy in British North America
Colonial assemblies evolved in this time period into sophisticated lawmaking bodies that fancied themselves to be the defenders of the rights of the people. When the assemblies sparred with imperial policy, they did so with the enforcement agents and royal governors. The assemblies used the “power of the purse” to bring most governors into line. Nevertheless, Britain’s mercantilist policies guided economic life in the colonies even though those policies fell into “salutary neglect”.

TOPIC #4- THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY ERA, 1754-1789

The French and Indian War
Ends in the Peace of Paris: Britain gains Canada and Florida and the French threat is removed British soldiers remain in the colonies to “secure the peace” Colonial officers get experience British army is not invincible Colonial pride in British empire Huge war debt leads to taxation after 1763

The Imperial Crisis and Resistance to Britain
The imperial crisis starts with a fundamental disagreement over the power of Parliament to levy taxes on the colonies (“virtual representation” vs. “no taxation without representation”) The Sugar Act ( 1764)- tariff on sugar, coffee, wines and other things imported into America in substantial amounts. The Stamp Act (1765) a direct tax results in colonial wide protest and spawns the “Sons of Liberty” ( first extralegal organized resistance) and Stamp Act Congress. After the repeal of the Stamp Act came the Declaratory Act( 1766) which stated that the colonies were subordinate and that Parliament could enact any law it wished. Later came the Townshend Duties. The Tea Act(1773) provokes the Boston Tea Party; the Parliamentary response is the Coercive or Intolerable Acts, followed by the colonies First Continental Congress (1774).

The War for Independence
King George declares the colonies in open rebellion and the fighting begins at Lexington and Concord (1775). Washington is appointed commander and in 1776 reluctant colonists are swayed by Thomas Paine’s Common Sense to declare for independence. Jefferson’s declaration is both an expression of enlightenment philosophy and a direct assault on the king. The war begins to look up when France, then Spain, then Holland declares war on England. Yorktown is the political victory the colonists need. Franklin negotiates a generous Treaty of Paris (1783).

State Constitutions and the Articles of Confederation
New governments are created that attempt to protect the rights of the people by limiting the power of the central government and the power of the state executives. The Articles government’s limited power and made it ineffective in many ways but not in organizing settlement in the Northwest territories (think Northwest Ordinance) “Nationalists” call for a convention to amend the Articles government because of incidents like Shays Rebellion. See handout on Articles

The Federal Constitution
The Philadelphia Convention (1787) created a constitution that was a product of compromises between the north and the south and between the large and small states. The most famous compromise being the “Great Compromise.” Madison is considered by historians to be the “father” of the constitution because of his leadership in the convention. Washington served as its president/chairman.

Ratification The ratification of the constitution by 9 of the states seemed unlikely until a group calling themselves “the Federalists”(Madison, Hamilton, Jay) emerged. They argued in favor of a large republic. This group labeled their opponents the “Anti-Federalists.” The Anti-Federalists feared a strong central government would jeopardize liberty.

THE EARLY REPUBLIC (ALSO KNOWN AS THE FEDERAL PERIOD)
TOPIC 5: THE EARLY REPUBLIC (ALSO KNOWN AS THE FEDERAL PERIOD)

Keys to the Federal Govt.
Washington established the central government: the executive departments, the judiciary, and the relationship between all three branches. Hamilton’s Grand Design-especially the Bank of the U.S. proposal-focused the debate over the elastic clause of the Constitution. Elastic Clause - Article I, Section VIII of the Constitution states that Congress shall have the power "to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution...powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States." This clause, known as the elastic clause, was the point of much contention between those who favored a loose reading of the Constitution and those who favored a strict reading of the Constitution.

Federalists and Republicans
Republicans- Jefferson Appealed to farmers, planters, urban artisans Small central govt., Strong state govts. Strict construction Opposed bank, tariffs, public debt Favored French in foreign affairs SEE HANDOUT Federalist- Hamilton Appealed to business, Strong central govt. Loose construction Favored English in foreign affairs Favored bank, tariffs, public debt

Republican Motherhood and Education of Women:
Mothers of the new Republic had the responsibility to preserve the nation by raising children who would be virtuous citizens and future leaders of the Republic. If mothers were to adequately educate their sons and daughters, then they needed an education too. Thus, the movement to educate women began. Beginnings of the Second Great Awakening: In the South in revivals: because Southern states had few large towns, circuit preachers filled the preaching void; revivals became meetings places, times to marry, times to party, and times to be saved. Talk more about it later!

Significance of Jefferson’s Presidency
The election of 1800=”the peaceful revolution” Trans-Mississippi expansion: Louisiana Purchase Maintained peace and stability leading the original opposition party thus establishing the “loyal opposition” concept Tried to put republican principles into political practice Failures: Embargo of an attempt to deal with France and England’s Berlin and Milan Decrees, along with the Non-Intercourse Act.

Growth of Slavery and Free Black Communities
The Cotton gin was created in It changes the face of cotton production in the South. It guarantees the continuation and growth of slavery. Free blacks in the antebellum period were numerous in the South but were relegated to second class citizenship and were watched carefully.

War of 1812 and Its Consequences
Consequences of the War of 1812: -beginnings of early industrialization -renewed sense of nationalism -beginning of the end of the first two party system- Federalists -creation of national heros (future presidents Jackson and Harrison) -elimination of Indian resistance in the South and old Northwest ( death of Tecumseh)

Topic 6: TRANSFORMATION OF THE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ANTEBELLUM AMERICA

Transportation Revolution
The transportation revolution and the creation of a national market economy in Antebellum America The transportation revolution involved the creation of canals, turnpikes, and steam-powered travel on the river ways.

The National Market Economy: Henry Clay’s American System
The concept of the national market economy emerged in the post war period of nationalism. Its champion was Henry Clay, from Kentucky. The goal was to link all sections of the country in an independent, self-sufficient economy. Clay believed that the federal government needed to take the lead by (1) establishing a protective tariff, (2) reestablishing a Bank of the U.S., and (3) building “internal improvements”(roads).

Beginnings of Industrialization and Changes in Social and Class Structures
Industrialization began in earnest in New England textile manufacture. Samuel Slater imported (snuck in) English technology for cotton mills. Lowell created the famous Lowell Mills in Massachusetts. Most of the early “operatives” were women-farmers’ daughters, but as industry and immigration expanded, men replaced women. A lower working class emerged. Both women and men developed early unions, but the union movement died on the heels of the Panic of 1837 and the influx of Irish immigrants that came in the 1840’s and 50’s

Lowell Mills

Immigration and Nativist reaction
Two major groups immigrated in the ante-bellum period: the Irish, fleeing the potato famine, and the Germans, fleeing political turmoil and war. The Irish were poor and unskilled and ended up in the cities of the northeastern seaboard (think Five Points, NY.) The Germans were fairly well off, and thus moved to the west to find land to farm that remined them of home (think Herman, Mo.) The nativist response was directed principally at the Irish inhabitants of the city slums who, both as Catholics and as tools of corrupt politicians, seemed to undermine democracy. Congregationalist Bostonians perhaps hated them the most. The most famous manifestation of nativism was the “Know Nothing” party which elected Massachusetts’ governor in the 1850’s. Nativism took a back seat to the growing slavery controversy.

Nativist Cartoon

Planters,Yeoman farmers, and Slaves in the cotton South.
Planters ruled. They were few. Yeomen were Jacksonians who resented the “cotton snobs” but yearned to be a cotton snob. Most white Southerners did not own slaves. Slaves grew in population and the “peculiar institution” became entrenched and synonymous with King Cotton. By the 1850’s, loyalty to slavery became synonymous with loyalty to the South.

Topic 7: THE TRANSFORMATION OF POLITICS IN ANTEBELLUM AMERICA

Emergence of the Second Party System
The second party system includes the Democrats (descendant from the Democratic-Republicans) and the Whigs (a coalition of anti-Jackson groups). The Democrats emerge from the “corrupt bargain” in 1824. John Quincy Adams

Federal Authority and Its opponents:
Judicial federalism: The Marshall Court John Marshall’s Court enlarged the power of the federal government and protected private contracts Legacy of Marshall A. Established the primacy of federal government over states in exercising control of economy (Gibbons v. Ogden ) B. Opened the way for an increased federal role in promoting economic growth (McCulloch v. Maryland) C. Affirmed protection for corporations and other private economic institutions from local governmental interference. This allowed for the growth of the new industrial capitalist economy. (Dartmouth College v. Woodward) D. First to use judicial review to strike down an act of Congress (Marbury v. Madison)

Andrew Jackson- “ King Mob”
Tariff controversy: the nullification crisis (Jackson v. Calhoun) States’ rights debates: the Webster-Hayne debate (1832) The Bank War: Jackson v. The “Monster Bank” Jacksonian Democracy and its successes and limitations: Focus of Jacksonian Democracy is on greater social and political equality and economic opportunity for white males/celebration of the common man Key successes: white male suffrage, “rotation in office”, settlement of the trans-Appalachian frontier, maintenance of union Limitations: in the North, a workingman’s lower class developed, in the South a poor yeoman farmer underclass; blacks, Native Americans, and women were excluded

Topic 8: RELIGION, REFORM, AND RENAISSANCE IN ANTEBELLUM AMERICA

Evangelical Protestant Revivalism
A spiritual neo-Calvinism that focused on “free agency” of all sinners to choose salvation. It resulted in a flurry of reform movements Social Reforms: Temperance, asylum and prison reform, abolition, women’s rights

Ideals of Domesticity The “cult of true womanhood” (aka the “cult of domesticity”) was promoted by Catherine Beecher There are two “spheres” in the home, one for men, one for women; Women are the virtuous half and will naturally nurture the children and raise them to be virtuous citizens Women are placed on a pedestal of respect in the home Managing the home is the most important calling for women 4 Principles of Domesticity- Purity, Piety, Submissiveness and Domesticity.

Transcendentalism and Utopian Communities:
Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau Goal: Transcend the material world, find individual spiritual fulfillment, and connect with the “oversoul” Utopian communities of Brook Farm and Oneida, each attempted to create a cooperative lifestyle based on greater equality and a simplified lifestyle; most failed to survive as communities

American Renaissance: Literary and Artistic Expression
Literary: Transcendentalist Emerson (“Self Reliance”), Thoreau (Walden Pond) Anti-Transcendentalist Melville (Moby Dick), Hawthorne (The Scarlet Letter) Artistic: Hudson River School: Asher Durand (“Kindred Spirits”), Thomas Cole (“The Course of Empire”) Albert Bierstadt (“Emigrants Crossing the Plains”)

“Kindred Spirits” by Asher Durand

Thomas Cole’s Course of Empire (the third of five paintings)

“ Destruction” –Thomas Cole 4th of 5 paintings

“Desolation” –Thomas Cole 5th of 5 paintings

“Emigrants Crossing the Plains”- by Albert Bierstadt

Topic 9- Territorial Expansion and Manifest Destiny

Forced Removal of American Indians to the Trans-Mississippi West
The removal of American Indians beyond the Mississippi had been advocated since the presidency of Thomas Jefferson and had been done incrementally ever since. The forced removal to the “Indian territory” in this time period focused on two distinct groups: (1) the Sac and Fox that resulted in the Black Hawk War and (2) the removal of the Five Civilized Tribes that culminated in the Trail of Tears

Western Migration and Cultural Interactions
By 1840, one third of America’s population was past the Appalachians and beginning to move to the “far west”, i.e., ---Oregon, California, and the Southwest. Beyond the Native Americans, cultural interactions were first with the Spanish and then the Mexicans. In both cases, cultural customs and products were exchanged through trade. Mexicans invited Americans to settle in their northern provinces (Texas).

Territorial Acquisitions
The “Convention of 1818” set the Canadian boundary generally along the 49th parallel up to the Oregon territory where joint occupation was agreed to for the time being. -East Florida in 1819 with the Adams-Onis Treaty after Jackson had occupied it. -Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 solidified the Canadian boundary Maine to the Oregon territory. -Oregon was acquired in 1846 by treaty with the British (split at the 49th parallel).

Early U.S. Imperialism: the Mexican War
Manifest Destiny” was a theme that promoted American expansion (and democracy) to the Pacific as willed by God. James K. Polk’s Mexican War resulted in the acquisition of what became known as the “Mexican Cession”. The annexation of Texas in 1845 sparked a diplomatic crisis with Mexico and Polk “solved” the crisis with war. Anti-slavery advocates saw the war as an attempt to enlarge the “slave power” of the South. The protest prompted Thoreau to write “Civil Disobedience” and David Wilmot to float his famous “proviso.” The war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Topic #10-The Crisis of the Union

Pro- and Antislavery Arguments and Conflicts
Led by George Fitzhugh, the proslavery arguments basically said that slavery was no longer a “necessary evil” but rather a “positive good” for everyone. Led by Wm. L. Garrison, the antislavery arguments basically said that slaves were in fact human beings who, like everyone else, deserved freedom. Even though abolitionists were in the minority, confrontations occurred in many forums and sometimes erupted in violence and death, most famously the Nat Turner Rebellion in 1832.

Compromise of 1850 and Popular sovereignty
Led by Henry Clay (aka “the Great Compromiser”), the Compromise of 1850 tried to pacify the North and the South but did not hold them together for more than a few years. Popular sovereignty was introduced in the compromise for the southwest territories. -California comes in as a free state -Rest of the Mexican Cession is under popular sovereignty -N.Mex. and Texas border dispute resolved -Harsher fugitive slave law is enacted -Public slave auctions are outlawed in D.C.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Emergence of the Republican Party Abraham Lincoln, The Election of 1860, and Secession The Kansas-Nebraska Act opened up what was free territory under the MO Compromise to the possibility of slavery. This caused a mini-civil war in Kansas and in the Congress- Caning of Charles Sumner. It led directly to the creation of the Republican Party, a coalition of antislavery Northern Whigs and Democrats who were opposed to further extension of slavery into the territories. The Dred Scott decision solidified the Republican opposition. Abraham Lincoln was labeled as a “Black Republican” by Stephen Douglas in their debates and the label effectively terrified white Southerners who saw his election in 1860 as a direct threat and challenge to their American way of life. Secession of the lower South occurred before Lincoln gave his first inaugural address and tried to reassure the South that he was not hostile to slavery where it already existed.

Topic 11- The Civil War

Two Societies at War: Mobilization, Resources, and Internal dissent
There was a great initial enthusiasm for the war, but when it was obvious the war would last, mobilization in the North was more successful than in the South: Davis had to deal with states rights and request men and material, whereas Lincoln could use far superior northern resources (railroads, manufacturing, working class, manpower) Internal dissent in the North was suppressed by the suspension of habeas corpus early in the war (especially in Maryland); dissenters were labeled “Copperheads”. New York Draft Riots of 1863

Military Strategies and Foreign Diplomacy
Military strategy for the North was the “Anaconda Plan” (1) capture Richmond, (2) capture the Mississippi River, (3) blockade the Southern coasts, (4) drive through the heart of the South with a conquering army Military strategy for the South was to defend itself until the North grew weary of fighting, then pursue peace Foreign diplomacy: the key issue was recognition by Britain of the Confederacy; Lincoln successfully forestalled it with the Emancipation and key victories at Antietam and Gettysburg

Emancipation and the Role of African Americans In the War
Lincoln decided on Emancipation as a “fit and necessary war measure” but it galvanized abolitionist support and redefined the struggle as a war for freedom. African-Americans fled their captivity when northern armies were near and signed up to fight (180,000), so the Proclamation was in fact an effective war measure.

Social, Political, and Economic Effects of war in the North, South, and West
the war increased a sense of respect socially both between and within races (though it was far from equality between races) the central government gained a great deal of power, both over the states and in the economy national corporate structures emerged during the Civil War to meet the needs of the War Department SOUTH the war created confusion because of emancipation the “compact theory” of government died so states rights takes a dive economically, the South is ruined WEST the war promoted greater social equality and economic opportunity through the free land giveaway (the Homestead Act), the Pacific Railway Act, and the Morrill Land Grant colleges slavery is a dead issue in the western territories

Topic 12-Reconstruction

Presidential and Radical Reconstruction
Lincoln and Johnson’s plans for reconstruction of the South are lenient: the key theme is quick restoration of the union (assumption: the states never left because the union is perpetual) Moderate Republicans are pushed into the radical camp by Johnson’s actions The Radicals get Johnson impeached for violating the Tenure of Office Act, but don’t get him thrown out of office. The Radicals find in Grant a cooperative president to punish the South and grant citizenship to the freedmen

Southern State Governments: Aspirations, Achievements, Failures
Federal government has to put states on lock down (Reconstruction Acts) to accept the new amendment- 13 and 14th Amendments. The hope is to use the reconstructed state governments to stimulate the economy and to have blacks and whites cooperate in doing so on paper at least State governments made advancements in expanding democracy, public education, and did in fact stimulate the economies with railroad building Racism and the panic of 1873 stopped the state governments from achieving their goals

Role of African Americans in Politics, Education, and the Economy
Several African Americans were elected to state and national government posts and did well on the whole, but were also caught in the patterns of corruption that were prevalent in national politics at the time (think Grant, Tweed, et. al.) The Freedman’s Bureau stimulated the education of freedmen of all ages At first most ex-slaves wandered away from their masters in search of economic opportunity, but eventually ended up back on the plantations, trying to work out a new system of employment- tenant farming, sharecropping, etc.

Compromise of 1877 Reconstruction ended when Hayes agreed to remove the last Union troops from the South after his inauguration– Tilden-Hayes Election Controversy. This opened the final doorway to the “white redeemers” who took back the south and put it firmly in control of local whites again.

Impact of the Reconstruction
(1) it created a promise of citizenship for African-Americans (2) it created deep seated hostility in southern whites that would deny African Americans citizenship for a hundred years and would reinvigorate states rights

Topic 13- Origins of the New South

Reconfiguration of Southern Agriculture: Sharecropping and the Crop lien system
Both sharecropping and the crop lien system held the promise of freedmen gaining some economic independence, which they did but at a heavy cost: they lost their freedom because they remained tied to white-owned land in a cycle of debt

Expansion of Manufacturing and Industrialization
One of the goals of the leaders of the “New South” was to build a diversified, more independent economy. This in fact began to happen in southern cities, but cotton remained the symbol of the South and southerners continued to rely principally on agriculture.

The Politics of Segregation: Jim Crow and disenfranchisement
Jim Crow refers to segregation of the races through state and local laws (housing, schools, jobs, public places), and was solidified by Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 (not overturned until Brown v. Board in 1954) Disenfranchisement, that is, denying the 15th amendment to African Americans, was first done through terrorism (think KKK) and then through legal means: grandfather clauses, poll taxes, and literacy tests (not overturned until the Voting Rights Act of 1965)

Topic 14- Development of the West in the Late Nineteenth Century

Expansion and Development of Western Railroads
The Pacific Railway Act set the standard and the tone of railroad “trunk line” development: -federal land grants to railroads -payment of subsidies to railroads -Union Pacific and the Central Pacific worked together and met at Promontory Point, Utah -first major national corporations -expansion was laced with corruption (famously the Credit Mobilier scandal)

Competitors for the West: Miners, Ranchers, Homesteaders, and American Indians
Miners start as 49ers in the California gold rush. Gold and silver strikes in Colorado, Nevada, and the Dakotas followed. Individualists, but self governing communities. Most famous=Mark Twain in “Roughing It” Ranchers start in Texas adopting the vaquero style and use the Chisholm Trail to get their cattle over the open range to railheads like Abilene. Homesteaders or “sodbusters” are spurred by the Homestead Act which initially gives farmers 160 acres of free land if they will develop it. American Indians who fight in the post Civil War time period are largely Plains Indians (Sioux, Cheyenne, Pawnee, Kiowa, Apache, Comanche, etc).

Government Policy toward American Indians
In the post Civil War era, two notable policies dominate: (1) reservation policy to avoid conflict with settlers; the most famous treaty used to illustrate the futility of reserved land is the Treaty of Fr. Laramie which promises land “as long as the sun shines” (2) assimilation of Native Americans into the “dominant culture”, notably with the Dawes Severalty Act and the training of youth at places like the Carlisle School. Although advocates were well meaning, the results were usually unsuccessful

Apache Indian Before and After Carlisle Schools

Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the far West
Gender: women generally enjoyed greater equality in the Far West because of the rugged conditions. An illustration is that the first state to give women the right to vote was Wyoming in 1869.

RACE African-Americans believed the west was an opportunity and tried to pursue it, notably the “Exodusters” in Kansas. They achieved greater equality on the mining and cattle frontiers, and as Indian fighters (notably the 9th and 10th cavalry). Chinese immigrants were used as a cheap labor supply, notably on the building of the transcontinental railroad, but were seen by nativists as a menace (think Chinese Exclusion Act). ETHNICITY Irish-Americans also helped build the transcontinental railroad Immigrants from all over the world participated in the mining frontier, especially in California.

Environmental Impact of Western Settlement
Strip mining, timber harvestation, and wholesale killing of wild animals (think the destruction of the buffalo) led to an early conservation movement manifested by the creation of national parks and forests, the first being Yellowstone in the 1870’s. By the turn of the century, Teddy Roosevelt would become its most famous political champion.

Topic #15- Industrial America in the Late Nineteenth Century

Corporate Consolidation of Industry
The “industrial statesmen” or “robber barons” as they were called by their critics, used cutthroat competition to consolidate whole industries, notably Vanderbilt in railroads, Carnegie in steel, Rockefeller in oil, and J.P. Morgan in banking (and everything else). Rockefeller is especially famous for the creation of the “trust”

Effects of Technological Development on the Worker and Workplace
Workers became cogs in the machinery of production. Skilled workers and unskilled workers were paid very little (about 20 and 10 cents an hour respectively). There was no regulation of the workplace, so industrial jobs were often hazardous. Children, women, and the “new immigrants” were especially vulnerable to abuse in the workplace.

Labor and Unions Two patterns of labor union movement occurred: industrial and trade unions. The industrial unions organized everyone, skilled and unskilled, and are famously represented by the Knights of Labor. Trade unions focused on a skilled trade and were famously represented by the American Federation of Labor. The Haymarket Riot helped identify political radicalism (anarchism mostly) with the industrial labor movement, so skilled trade unions that stayed away from politics gained power. This riot led to the demise of the Knights of Labor. Nevertheless, throughout the last quarter of the nineteenth century, large scale strikes often resulted in violent battles between laborers and government or private enforcement agencies (examples: Homestead Strike, Pullman Strike). During this time period, we see the government siding with the business owner.

National Politics and the Influence of Corporate Power
Corporate power brought a great deal of money to bear to influence national politics. The Grant administration was notorious for its scandals, notably the Credit Mobilier scandal and the Whiskey Ring. The United States Senate increasingly became perceived by critics as simply a tool of big business which seemed to buy off state legislatures to get pro-business politicians into office. Politically this issue came to a head with the election of Cleveland who campaigned against the “vicious tariff” of the special interests.

Proponents and Opponents of the New Order; e. g
Proponents and Opponents of the New Order; e.g. Social Darwinism and Social Gospel Proponents like Andrew Carnegie asserted in his “Gospel of Wealth” that natural selection had created the rich and the poor and that it was unavoidable ( social Darwinism- “ root, hog, or die”) Nevertheless, he believed the rich had an obligation to become philanthropists and spend most of their money before their death.

Opponents like Henry George asserted in his Progress and Poverty that the new order went against natural law and that a land tax was the only way to begin to rectify the great differences between the “House of Have and the House of Want.” Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backward- saw socialism in America’s future. The government controlling business, for many, seemed to be the solution to the growing problem of corruption and disparity of distribution of wealth. Washington Gladden in his Applied Christianity asserted the social gospel theme that we should treat each other with the golden rule in the workplace

Topic #16- Urban Society in the Late Nineteenth Century

Urbanization and the Lure of the City
Most Americans lived on the farm, but by the late nineteenth century cities had become specialized manufacturing centers of opportunity for displaced or poor farmers and new immigrants. Most Americans welcomed and were awed by the technological development of the cities without thought to its human ramifications. The term “skyscraper” began to be used and architects like Louis Sullivan (think “form follows function”) began to build symbols of the industrial revolution. Chicago, having burned down in the 1890’s was a prime target for new building. Carl Sandburg marveled about it his poem “Chicago”.

City Problems and Machine Politics
Two people are famous for exposing the problems of urbanization in the late nineteenth century: (1) Thomas Nast whose cartoon assault on municipal corruption brought down Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall (New York) (2) Jacob Riis whose expose’ How the Other Half Lives detailed the horrific tenement conditions in the lower east side of New York. One person is famous for addressing the needs of the poor: Jane Addams and her settlement house movement.

Intellectual and Cultural Movements and Popular Entertainment
Intellectual and cultural movements: -Realism in literature, notably Mark Twain (Huckleberry Finn) and Stephen Crane (Red Badge of Courage) - Realism also dominated American painting, notably Thomas Eakins and Winslow Homer. - Intellectual movements tended to criticize the excesses of the industrial revolution (Thorsten Veblen’s Theory of the Leisure Class, and Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backward)

Realism

Popular Amusements Ragtime begins in the late nineteenth century (think Scott Joplin), baseball solidifies itself as the national pastime, but basketball is invented, and so are bicycles. Dime novels are the rage, most famously the “Ragged Dick” rags-to-riches series by Horatio Alger. Popular games included cards, dominos, and checkers and rural life was punctuated with the occasional traveling circus (Barnum and Bailey).

Topic 17- POPULISM AND PROGRESSIVISM

Agrarian Discontent and Political Issues of the Late Nineteenth Century
Agrarian discontent focused on: (1) the decline in status in the wake of urbanization (as in “farmers are hicks”) (2) a perceived assault on family farmers by -railroads and their discriminatory rates, -big business, especially debt-holding banks, -and unresponsive government Political issues: silver, tariffs, corrupt government, and regulation of big business (i.e. RR’s) Solution: The Farmers Alliance & Populist Party

Origins of Progressive Reform, Municipal, State, and National
Progressive reform started when reformers called out corruption in cities like St. Louis (“Tweed Days in St. Louis” by Lincoln Steffens), in states like Wisconsin (LaFollette’s “The Wisconsin Idea”), and at the national level. Muckrakers were exposes the evils in business and politics- The Jungle- Upton Sinclair Progressives were educated, middle class urbanites who had faith in the people and the future. The philosophy of “Pragmatism” (“truth” has to be practical and workable in the real world), and scientific inquiry guided their reform ideas.

Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson as Progressive Presidents
Roosevelt believed in a strong presidency that tried to promote a “square deal” for everyone in society. He became the first modern president, using the office as a “bully pulpit”. Taft, TR’s hand picked successor, was a true “trust buster” but the more liberal Republicans labeled him as a friend of big business. TR ran against him in 1912 as a “Bull Moose” nominee. It was during Taft’s presidency that the 16th and 17th amendments were passed (income tax and direct election of senators) Wilson’s “New Freedom” emphasized the role of government in protecting the liberty and opportunity of the common man. A flurry of legislation reshaped the role of the national government in the economy

Women’s roles: Family, Workplace, Education, Politics, and Reform
Women continued to break into higher education, but most women tended to continue traditional roles in the family unless they were lower class factory or service workers. Middle class urbanites were active in progressive reform movements. Most famously, suffragettes and temperance reformers actively pursued prohibition and the vote (18th and 19th amendments) Margaret Sanger advocates family planning, eventually founding Planned Parenthood is one example of how women played a role in the reform movements.

Black America: Urban migration and Civil Rights Initiatives
Families arriving in North during the period known as the "Great Migration" W.E.B. DuBois is the Black Progressive: -Souls of Black Folk -co-founds the Niagara Movement & NAACP -editor of the Crisis Booker T. Washington- Atlanta Compromise- he advised African Americans to “ cast down your buckets where you are”- economic security is key… the rest will come.

Topic 18- THE EMERGENCE OF AMERICA AS A WORLD POWER

American Imperialism: Political and Economic Expansion
Expansion is mostly in Latin America, China, and the island of the Pacific. High points include the acquisition of Hawaii, the War to Free Cuba (Spanish- American War) and acquisition of the Philippines, the Open Door Policy, and the Roosevelt Corollary.

War In Europe and American Neutrality
At the beginning of the “Great War” (1914) most Americans believed neutrality the best policy. Neutrality was severely challenged and broken by 1917 principally by Germany’s submarine warfare ( Sinking of the Lusitania, Sussex Pledge, Sinking of 4 U.S. ships) and Wilson’s reaction to it (“the world must be made safe for democracy”).

The First World War at Home and Abroad
At home, mobilization was spurred by the creation and use of the “War Boards” and by calling on everyone (including women and African Americans) to work for the war effort. Espionage and Sedition Acts were passed to curtail free speech and stop interference with the war effort. “Doughboys” were recruited and drafted into the American Expeditionary Force

Treaty of Versailles and the Paris Peace Conference
Woodrow Wilson proposed the 14 points, the most important point being the last which proposed a League of Nations. Wilson gave up 10 of the 14 points to get the League. He embedded it into the treaty. The Senate rejected the treaty. The U.S would not join the League of Nations.

Society and economy in the postwar years
Both the society and the economy faced uncertainty and hardship from The 1918 flu pandemic left 500,000 dead in the United States and shook up American confidence in the future. Strikes & fears of communism led to the Red Scare and the “Palmer Raids” Harding appealed to Americans who were tired of trying to save the world at home and abroad by suggesting a “return to normalcy”

Topic 19-THE NEW ERA: 1920’S

The Business of America and the Consumer Economy
The Second Industrial Revolution focused on the marketing and sale of consumer goods. Business culture was celebrated: the “Coolidgism” that applies is his statement that “the business of America is business.” This decade is the birth era of modern America as we know it: driven by automobiles, materialism, and fads

Republican politics: Harding, Coolidge, Hoover
Led by Herbert Hoover as Secretary of Commerce and Andrew Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury, these three presidents focused on stimulating the economy by creating a partnership between government and business. Mellon is famous for his tax cut proposals, and Hoover is famous for using government regulatory agencies to help big business expand. In Harding’s case, that partnership went illegal with the “Teapot Dome” scandal ( Think Ohio Gang)

The culture of Modernism: Science, the Arts, and Entertainment
Modernism was an avant garde movement that celebrated change in a new emerging urban culture. In science, the focus was on practical application to create new urban landscapes complete with automobiles and skyscrapers, and marketing new electric home conveniences. In the arts, painters and musicians tended to celebrate the era, whereas the most famous writers tended to criticize the materialism and shallowness of the era. In entertainment, radio, movies, and sports were gaining a national audience In each case, the 20’s preoccupation with individual heroes made celebrities out of entertainment personalities (think Charlie Chaplin, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Babe Ruth)

Responses to Modernism: Religious fundamentalism, Nativism, and Prohibition
The most famous illustration of religious reaction is the Scopes Monkey Trial featuring two old opponents: Clarence Darrow (modernist) v. William Jennings Bryan (fundamentalist). Nativism was expressed specifically against the “new” immigrants. The Red Scare kicked it off, followed by the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan, and culminating in the most restrictive immigration policies in our history: the Quota Acts (“Emergency” and “National Origins”). Prohibition changes life in America- results in corruption and crime- The Noble Experiment.

The Ongoing Struggle for Equality: African Americans and Women
In the South, the twenties continued to be a decade of racial oppression. The Great Migration resulted in a significant new urban population of African Americans in northern cities. In 1919, race riots occured in some of those cities. Blacks created northern urban enclaves, most famously in Harlem, the “Negro capital of the world” where African-American culture experienced a renaissance in art, music, and literature (think Locke, DuBois, Johnson, Armstrong).

Topic 20- THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND THE NEW DEAL

Causes of the Great Depression
worldwide political and economic instability in the aftermath of World War I -overproduction -inadequate worker compensation -overspeculation by banks and individuals in everything, famously the stock market -failure of the Fed to act consistently to curb inflation and overspeculation -government leaders’ overconfident and unrealistic view

The Hoover Administration’s Response
(1) hope it was a small downturn that would correct itself/present positive outlook (2) encourage local and state volunteer relief agencies to get help to the distressed (3) pass legislation to aid the economy: -the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (for banks) -Boulder Dam (public works jobs) -Federal Farm Board -tax cuts -protective tariffs (protect American jobs) (4) liken protesters (think the Bonus Marchers) to communists

Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal
Roosevelt reassured the nation that “we have nothing to fear but fear itself”, and in his first “100 Days” declared a “bank holiday” and signed a flurry of laws to combat the Depression. The laws fall under three categories: * Relief (for individuals, mostly with public works jobs-think WPA), * Recovery (for businesses, including loans, subsidies, cooperative arrangements-think bank holiday & NRA) * Reform (for government’s role in the economy-it increased dramatically-think AAA, Wagner Act, and Social Security)

Labor and union recognition
The Wagner Act (National Labor Relations Act) put the government behind industrial unions and the result was (1)union recognition, notably the C.I.O. under John Lewis (2) working class becoming part of the middle class (3) labor moving squarely into the Democratic camp

The New Deal Coalition and Its Critics from the Right and the Left
The New Deal coalition includes labor, minorities (who mostly found a friend in Eleanor Roosevelt), farmers, urban liberals, and rural southerners. -Famous critics included Father Coughlin (let’s nationalize the banks) on the right and Huey Long (let’s share the wealth) on the left. -Critic Francis Townsend’s idea of an old age government pension was of course enacted into the Social Security Act in Roosevelt was severely criticized in the general public for his court packing scheme and for the recession of

Surviving Hard Times: American Society during the Great Depression
Poor, frugal, fearful, sometimes nomadic and out of work, American society was captured by WPA photographers and historians, most famously by Dorothea Lange’s photography

Topic 21- THE SECOND WORLD WAR

The rise of Fascism and Miltarism in Japan, Italy, and Germany
Hitler, Mussolini, and Tojo rose to power in their respective countries in the late 1920’s and early 1930’s capitalizing on economic, social, and political instability and finding scapegoats for their authoritarian solutions. Their targets were liberals, Jews, and communists. Japan invaded China in 1931, Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1936, Germany helped the fascists in Spain in 1936 and then retook some of its lost territory in 1937. FDR’s response was public condemnation (“Quarantine the Agressors”)but he could do little else because of the isolationist mentality of the time.

Prelude to war: Policy of Neutrality
Two factors stimulated isolationism and neutrality: (1) the Depression, and (2) the danger of war abroad. Neutrality was reinforced by the finding of the Nye Committee in 1935 and three subsequent “Neutrality Acts” in 35, 36, and 37. Unfortunately, these acts only serve to encourage fascist dictators to be more aggressive. When Hitler marched through France in 1940 and started the “Battle of Britain”, American attitudes began to change, and Roosevelt began a series of moves to put America squarely in the Allied camp (think destroyers for bases deal(40), and Lend-Lease(41; think “Arsenal of Democracy”). In 1941, Roosevelt ordered the U.S. Navy to attack the German submarines (the “rattlesnakes of the Atlantic”).

Response to Charles Lindberg’s America First Committee

The Attack on Pearl Harbor and U.S. Declaration of War
Japan attacked the U.S. in attempt to destroy the Pacific fleet and thereby stop America from interfering any further in Japanese expansion in Asia. FDR called December 7, 1941 a “day of infamy” and got Congress to declare war.

Fighting a Multi-front war
FDR’s primary focus was on Europe, but the fight was carried around the globe in two “theatres”. In the Pacific, the strategy was called “island hopping”. In Europe, the strategy was to attack first from the south, and then open up a “second front” in the west.

The U.S. as a Global Power in the Atomic Age
In response to a plea by Einstein to FDR, the Manhattan Project was begun. The U.S. and U.K. worked together to develop the bomb and successfully tested it in New Mexico in 1945. Truman dropped the bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki primarily to end the war quickly and avoid an invasion of Japan’s mainland.

Diplomacy, War aims, and Wartime conferences
For the Soviets, the aim was to defeat Hitler and maintain control of eastern Europe. For the Americans, the goal was to build a collective security agreement to stop war in the future. For all three, unconditional surrender became the military goal. The “Big Three” met to primarily collaborate in the defeat the Nazis and plan the post war world. At the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944, they worked on the creation of the United Nations. The most famous meeting was at Yalta where the post world war was planned in the “Yalta Agreement”.

Topic 22- THE HOME FRONT DURING THE WAR

Wartime Mobilization of the Economy
FDR created a series of government organizations (like the War Production Board), and then borrowed heavily to finance an economic explosion of war industries.

Urban Migration and Demographic Changes
Americans moved to urban areas to find war jobs in factories. This new workforce included large numbers of women and minorities. Rural areas lost huge amounts of population War production areas in the West and South (the “Sunbelt”) received millions of Americans looking for work. Families suffered under crowded housing conditions and schools were unable to cope with the influx of new people

Women, Work, and Family during the War
Women worked at home and in factories and even signed up in the military. For women, it was both liberating and difficult. Many families moved to find work and ended up in crowded trailers or other makeshift housing. Child care was largely unavailable, and with fathers oftentimes in the service, families were strained often to the breaking point.

Civil Liberties and Civil Rights during Wartime
For African and Mexican Americans, it was a time of opportunity but also conflict and racism. Below are the three most famous conflicts involved: 1) A.Phillip Randolph- A. Phillip Randolph threated a march on Washington in 1941 and FDR responded with the Fair Employment Practices Commission 2) The Zoot Suit Riots-Mexican “zoot suiters” got into scrapes with servicemen in LA and eventually these scrapes led to riots. 3) Japanese Relocation- California Japanese Americans were relocated in camps and kept there until 1946; attempts to overturn the order were denied by the Supreme Court in 1944.

Expansion of Governmental Power
The government exercised a great deal of power over the economy and over the lives of Americans who signed up or were drafted into the armed services. Resources were channeled to the fighting men overseas and Americans had to endure shortages in food, clothing, and other consumer goods. Rationing and patriotism were used to ensure success. Government spending went from $9 billion in 1940 to $98 billion in 1944. Payroll deduction was introduced to insure income tax collection. Taxes were increased, disproportionately on the rich.

Topic 23- THE UNITED STATES AND THE EARLY COLD WAR

Origins of the Cold War Four key factors stimulated the Cold War: (1) the development use and monopoly of atomic power (2) the occupation of Europe (3) the question of American economic aid (4) fundamental ideological differences.

Truman and Containment
Truman’s state department, led by George Marshall, formulated the policy of containment, famously in the George Kennan essay. Communist insurgencies in Greece and Turkey sparked the “Truman Doctrine”, a speech that became a sort of declaration of war on communism. That same year, 1946, Churchill coined his famous “iron curtain” phrase. The following year, a direct confrontation occurred over the occupation of Berlin.

The Cold War in Asia: China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan
China: In 1949, the communists under Mao Tse Tung defeated the Nationalists under Chiang Ki Shek and drove them from the mainland to Taiwan. Korea: In 1950, the North Koreans invaded South Korea, and Truman responded by going to the United Nations to request assistance for South Korea. The resulting “UN police action” ended up becoming the Korean War. The Chinese came into the war and only ended when Eisenhower secretly threatened China with atomic war. Vietnam: In 1954, the French were defeated by Ho Chi Minh at Dien Bien Phu and Vietnam was divided by the Geneva Convention. Japan: Japan was rebuilt as a parliamentary democracy and became our principal ally in the Far East after China became communist.

Diplomatic Strategies and Policies of the Eisenhower and Kennedy Administrations
Covert action in Guatemala Dulles pioneered the threat of massive retaliation- brinkmanship Eisenhower Doctrine was established in the middle east (Suez Crisis and Lebanon) Kennedy used “flexible response” to try to deal with communist threats, most famously in the Cuban Missile Crisis.

The Red Scare and McCarthyism
The initial failures in Truman’s foreign policy to stabilize the balance of power in the world, coupled with the Russian explosion of an a-bomb in 1949, created the climate for McCarthyism

Impact of the Cold War on American society
Unlike the Red Scare of 1919, this new red scare focused on native American citizens, particularly liberals who had flirted with communist ideas during the Depression in the 30’s. McCarthy used fear, intimidation, and innuendo to do harm people and cast a shadow of fear in America. Republicans regained the White House in 1953. The economy grew fairly steadily with a significant infusion of federal spending directed either militarily or domestically at the cold war. Notable domestic expenditures include the interstate highway system and aid to education in response to Sputnik.

Topic 24- THE 1950’S

Emergence of the Modern Civil Rights Movement
There are two facets to the movement: (1) action in the courts, which had been started by the NAACP several years before and culminated in Brown v. Board in 1954, and (2) action in the streets by people fighting segregation of public facilities, most famously led by Martin Luther King and the SCLC. The backlash to both facets forced the judicial and executive departments to intervene with landmark decisions and force.

The Affluent Society and the “other America”
The “affluent society” phrase was coined by economist John Kenneth Galbraith in his book by the same title. It refers what he perceived to be the conformity, shallowness, and wastefulness of the rising American affluence. Part of his stinging indictment was picked up by another critic, Michael Harrington, in his 1962 book, The Other America in which he describes the alarmingly high rate of unseen poverty in America: people who have been left behind during the nation’s growing affluence. Nevertheless, Americans were probably more economically equal at this point in our history than any other time because of a combination of the New Deal and the War.

Consensus and Conformity: Suburbia and Middle-Class America
Social critics like David Reisman (The Lonely Crowd, 1950) and Betty Freidan (The Feminine Mystique, 1963) criticized the new suburban culture as one of conformity that trapped people in an unfulfilling cultural sameness (remember “Little Houses on the Hillside”?) Conformity was stimulated by three factors: (1) patriotism and conformity drilled in by WWII, (2) fear of anything that would threaten the new prosperity (a prosperity unknown to the young adults of 1946), (3) fear of communism reinforced by political leaders. Suburbia represented for many Americans a chance to do something they had never done: own a home. The “GI Bill” helped that dream come true for veterans.

The GI Bill, 1944 What it was: Congress passed the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, or GI Bill of Rights in 1944. This federal program provided benefits to help returning soldiers create a new life after the war. They could buy a home, go to college, open a small business- the opportunities were endless.

Social Critics, Nonconformists, and Cultural rebels
The most famous nonconformists were the “beats”- The Beat Generation was a group of American writers who came to prominence in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Jack Kerouac's On the Road (1957), Allen Ginsberg's Howl (1956), and William S. Burroughs's Naked Lunch (1959) are often considered their most important works. This groups represented the underground, anti-conformist youth who shared many of the same themes, ideas, intentions, etc. (for example, dedication to spontaneity, open-form composition, subjectivity, and so on), would also be included. Various artists who blazed new cultural trails, notably Jackson Pollack with his surrealist canvasses painted on the floor.

The Beat Bible

Non-Conformist Artist- Andy Warhol and Jackson Pollack

Impact of Changes in Science, Technology, and Medicine
In science, the most significant discoveries included the DNA double helical and the ability to create a fusion reaction (hydrogen atomic power). In technology, one of the most significant developments was the computer. “Eniac” was the first-it filled up a few rooms-not exactly a PC. In medicine, the significant advancements included the wholesale use of penicillin and the development and use of the polio vaccine. In space, the most significant advancement was a Russian one: Sputnik

Topic 25-THE TURBULENT 60’S

From the New Frontier to the Great Society
Kennedy’s New Frontier became focused on foreign affairs early on (think his inaugural address) The New Frontier in domestic politics had three focal points: (1) civil rights (2) national health insurance (3) federal aid to education Sound familiar? It’s the Fair Deal ( Think Truman) all over again, and the same opposition arouse to knock it down, so Kennedy focused on foreign affairs as a young Cold Warrior. His summit with Khrushchev sobered him and reinforced his decision to build up our armed services.

Johnson’s Great Society
The Great Society ( reminiscent of the New Deal) a set of domestic programs proposed or enacted in the United States on the initiative of President Lyndon B. Johnson ( ). Two main goals of the Great Society social reforms were the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. New major spending programs that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, and transportation were launched during this period Great Society Programs Civil Rights Act of 1964 Voting Rights Act of 1965 Civil Rights Act of 1968 Immigration and Nationality Service Act of 1965 Job Corps VISTA Food Stamps Head Start Elementary and Secondary Education Act Medicare/ Medicaid National Endowment for the Arts/Humanities.

Expanding Movements for Civil Rights
Martin Luther King continued to put pressure on government to desegregate schools and public facilities, and to end job discrimination. This effort culminated in the March on Washington in 1963, the Civil Rights Act in 1964, and the Voting Rights Act in 1965. The Warren Court continued to find in favor of desegregation, and under attorney general Robert Kennedy, black Americans found a champion. But the civil rights movement was splintered by “Black Power” groups, notably SNCC, the Nation of Islam, and the Black Panthers who began to believe that integration would never result in equality and dignity for black Americans.

Militancy or Peace?

Cold War Confrontations: Asia, Latin America, Europe
the danger of confrontation subsided somewhat in Europe after the Soviets built the Berlin Wall in 1961 Kennedy used aerial photographs to discover the presence of missiles in Cuba- Cuban Missile Crisis. Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam expanded the Cold War by 1963, Kennedy had raised our presence in Vietnam from 900 to 11,000 troops In 1964, the Gulf of Tonkin incident gave Johnson the political backing to escalate the war in Vietnam The Tet Offensive (1968) by the communist Viet Cong helped turn Americans against further escalation of the Vietnam War

Watson and Cricks along with Jonas Salk

Beginning of Detente Richard Nixon was elected in 1968 after the Democrats imploded over the issue of the Vietnam War. His promise was “Peace With Honor”, and it took him more than four years to negotiate the Paris Peace Accords (1973). Nevertheless, it was the beginning of a easing of tensions between America and both the Soviet Union and the Peoples Republic of China. Détente (relaxation of strained relations between nations) culminated in Nixon’s visits to Russia and to China and his signing of the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks in 1972.

Signing of the SALT I Agreement

The Antiwar movement and Counterculture
The antiwar movement began in the mid 1960’s, but did not gain much attention until the 1967 Pentagon protest. In 1970, in an attempt to stop supply routes of the Viet Cong, Nixon ordered an invasion of Cambodia that brought storms of protest on 400 college campuses, including Kent State where four students were killed

Counterculture cont… The counterculture was a movement to challenge the values of the “affluent society” of the 50’s and 60’s and try to find life’s meaning in a new view of the world. Some of the most famous expressions of the counterculture were in the music of the 60’s, which included a “rock opera”, Hair. There are two famous incidents that capture some of the spirit of the counterculture: San Francisco’s “summer of love” (1967) and Woodstock (1969). The person most famous for advocating the use of acid (LSD) was Harvard professor, Timothy Leary who advised youth (before he got fired) to “turn on, tune in, and drop out.” Needless to say, this movement caused a bit of a generation gap and some serious backlash.

Topic 26- POLITICS AND ECONOMICS AT THE END OFTHE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The election of 1968 and “Silent Majority”
Richard Nixon’s election in 1968 was heralded by some analysts as a backlash of the “excesses” of the 60’s by the “silent majority” of Americans who were fed up with civil rights and anti-war protests and the counterculture movement. Nixon gained an advantage when the Democrats divided over the Vietnam War. The first dissenter in the Democratic ranks was Wisconsin senator Eugene McCarthy. Riots at the Chicago convention only amplified the divided image of the Democratic party Nevertheless, in the popular vote the election was close. Note George Wallace’s success in the white south, breaking from the Democratic Party.

Nixon’s challenges: Vietnam, China, Watergate
The promise of the Paris Peace Accords disintegrated when the North Vietnamese conquered South Vietnam. “Ping pong diplomacy” began the normalization of relations with China; that helped prompt the Soviets to invite Nixon to Moscow for a visit. Watergate ended the Nixon presidency when it became evident Nixon misused his powers to obstruct the FBI

Nixon’s Challenges

Changes in the American economy: the Energy crisis, Deindustrialization, and the Service economy
U.S. support of Israel in the Yom-Kippur War prompted the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973 and ultimately the formation of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC) The American economy-since 1950-had begun to change from a manufacturing base to a more technology-centered service economy. Futurist John Naismith in his 1982 book Megatrends summarized the history of mankind’s economic changes in three words: farmer-laborer-clerk, declaring that most Americans in the late 20th century were paid mostly to provide information (not to make anything).

The New Right and Reagan Revolution
Ronald Reagan, associated with American patriotism, in the 1980 election campaign In response to what seemed to be an impotent Democratic leadership, Americans elected Ronald Reagan in Reagan represented a return to a more hopeful time of stability and economic growth that celebrated (1) a strong military (2) family values (3) individual responsibility and morality To foster these values, Reagan asserted that Americans need get government off their backs.

Reagan Years Ronald Reagan was a man whose values had been formed before the turbulent sixties, and in a style resembling his early political hero, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Reagan adopted a stance that depicted “big government” as bad, federal intervention in local affairs as condemnable, and favoritism for minorities as negative. Reagan’s photogenic personality and good looks on televised debates, as well as his attacks on President Carter’s problems, helped him win the election of 1980 by a landslide. For over two decades, the government budget had slowly and steadily risen, much to the disturbance of the tax-paying public, and by the 80s, the public was tired of the New Deal and the Great Society and ready to slash bills, just as Reagan proposed. As Congress was held by the Republican party, His federal budget had cuts of some $35 billion, and he even wooed some Southern Democrats to abandon their own party and follow him, but on March 30, 1981, the president was shot and wounded, but he recovered in only twelve days, showing his devotion to physical fitness despite his age (near 70) and gaining massive sympathy and support

Reagan’s budget cost $695 million, and the vast majority of budget cuts fell upon social programs, not on defense, but there were also sweeping tax cuts of 25% over three years. The president appeared on national TV pleading for passage of the new tax-cut bill, and bolstered by “boll weevils,” or Democrats who defected to the Republican side, Congress passed it. The bill used “supply side” economics to lower individual taxes, almost eliminate federal estate taxes, and create new tax-free savings plans for small investors. However, this theory backfired as the nation slid into its worst recession since the Great Depression, with unemployment reaching nearly 11% in 1982 and several banks failing.

End of the Cold War The Cold War ended in 1991 with the break up of the Soviet Union into smaller nations. In each of these nations’ communism eventually was voted out of office by a new hopeful wave of democratic revolutions. Historians disagree over which of the following factors were most important in making this happen, but most agree on the factors: -aggressive and sustained U.S. defense budgets that the USSR to tried to match and economically could not, -the leadership of Gorbachev, introducing “perestroika” and “glasnost” into the Soviet Union -the nationalist movements in the Soviet Union -the Soviet citizens tiring of unproductive totalitarian regimes -the standard of living in the west that contrasted sharply with that of the Soviet Union

Tearing down the Berlin Wall

TOPIC 27. SOCIETY AND CULTURE AT THE END OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Demographic changes: surge of immigration after 1965, Sunbelt migration and the Graying of America
1965 Immigration Act: This law substantially revised the system of immigration quotas that had been in effect since 1924, allowing more Asians and Latin American immigrants into the United States.

Sunbelt Migration Sunbelt migration began during World War II when Americans moved to find jobs in defense industries, and continued in the late 20th century as old manufacturing industries declined and new technology moved to the west (think Silicon Valley) and the South

Graying of America Graying of America: as the baby boomers aged and medical advances prolonged life, the population of Americans over age 55 has steadily risen.

Revolutions in Biotechnology, Mass communication, and Computers
Biotechnology is “the interdisciplinary frontier between biology, engineering, medicine and plant science--is also the scene of exciting scientific and technological developments in many areas of science.” Important areas of development include: • Recombinant DNA • Producing New Crop Species • Clinical Diagnostics • Medical Therapy • Bioinformatics and Processing • Producing Biomaterials Mass communication: Ever since the first “Telstar” satellite was launched in 1962, Americans have used satellite/cellular technology to create world wide communication.

From there to here…

The Clinton Years The beginning of the 1990s was a difficult time for the United States. The country was plagued not only by a sluggish economy but by violent crime (much of it drug-related), poverty, welfare dependency, problematic race relations, and spiraling health costs. Bill Clinton the first baby boomer president led the Democrats in trying a new approach, promoting growth, strong defense, and anticrime policies while campaigning to stimulate the economy. But by this time, few Americans trusted the government, the reverse of the WWII generation. The early Clinton years didn’t help with the “don’t ask, don’t tell policy”, appointing Hillary to revamp the health care system, along with the Whitewater case. Luckily Clinton was able to recover by shrinking the deficit to the lowest level in a decade, passing the Brady bill, signing 30 major bills that help women and families, and getting women and minorities in to high political positions.

Politics in a Multicultural Society
American political leaders have become increasingly aware of the multicultural nature of American society, making special appeals to Mexican and Asian Americans.

George W. Bush at the Republican Convention
George Bush speaking the 2000 Republican convention… “We are now one of the largest Spanish-speaking nations in the world. We're a major source of Latin music, journalism and culture. Just go to Miami, or San Antonio, Los Angeles, Chicago or West New York, New Jersey ... and close your eyes and listen. You could just as easily be in Santo Domingo or Santiago, or San Miguel de Allende. For years our nation has debated this change -- some have praised it and others have resented it. By nominating me, my party has made a choice to welcome the new America.” Candidate George Bush at the 2000 Republican Convention.

AP Review 2010 This review is based on the outline provided by College Board of the major topics in U.S. history.

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AP Review 2010 This review is based on the outline provided by College Board of the major topics in U.S. history.

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Presentation on theme: "AP Review 2010 This review is based on the outline provided by College Board of the major topics in U.S. history."— Presentation transcript:

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