1. Forensic Toxicology: Part 1 – Drugs Chapter 7 “Having sniffed the dead man’s lips, I detected a slightly sour smell, and I came to the conclusion that he had poison forced upon him.” — Sherlock Holmes, in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s A Study in Scarlet

2. Chapter 7 1 Drugs and Crime  A drug is a natural or synthetic substance designed to affect the subject psychologically or physiologically.  “Controlled substances” are drugs that are restricted by law  Controlled Substances Act is a law that was enacted in 1970; it lists illegal drugs, their category and their penalty for possession, sale or use.

3. Chapter 7 Controlled Substances Act Federal Law established 5 schedules of classification of controlled substances based on ®Drug’s potential for abuse ®Potential to physical and psychological dependence ®Medical Value Note: Federal law also controls materials that are used in making drugs and those that are manufactured to resemble drugs 2

4. Chapter 7 3 Controlled Substances and Their Schedule Placement Schedule I  High potential for abuse  No accepted medical use in the U.S.  May not be prescribed ( Heroin, LSD, marijuana, MDMA)

5. Chapter 7 Controlled Substances and Their Schedule Placement Schedule II  High potential for abuse  Currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions (prescription must be in ink or typewritten and signed, no renewals)  Abuse may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence (cocaine, morphine, amphetamines, Ritalin)

6. Chapter 7 5 Controlled Substances and Their Schedule Placement Schedule III ®Lower potential for abuse ®Currently accepted medical use in the U.S. (prescription may be oral, up to 5 renewals within 6 months) ®Abuse may lead to moderate physical dependence or high psychological dependence Intermediate acting barbiturates, anabolic steroids

7. Chapter 7 Controlled Substances and Their Schedule Placement Schedule IV ®Low potential for abuse ®Currently accepted medical use in the U.S. ®Abuse may lead to limited physical or psychological dependence relative to drugs in III Stimulants and depressants including Valium, Xanan, Librium, phenobarbital, Darvon

8. Chapter 7 7 Controlled Substances and Their Schedule Placement Schedule V ®Low potential for abuse ®Currently accepted medical use in the U.S. (prescription may not be required) ®Abuse may lead to limited physical or psychological dependence relative to drugs in IV ®Subject to state and local regulations Codeine found in low doses in cough medicines

9. Chapter 7 Human Performance Toxicology Drug Class Effects Central Nervous System Depressants Central Nervous System Stimulants Hallucinogens Narcotic Analgesics Barbiturates

10. Chapter 7 9 Narcotics/Analgesics Chemical substances that act on the CNS alleviate pain and induce physical and mental numbness. Range from mild OTC medicines to highly addictive and toxic illicit analgesics. Examples: heroin, opium, aspirin, ibuprofen (Motrin), acetaminophen/paracetamol (Tylenol), codeine, methadone, oxycodon (Percocet), propoxyphene (Darvon)

11. Chapter 7 Heroin (diacetylmorphine) ®A semi-synthetic opioid drug synthesized from morphine, a derivative of the opium poppy. ®Used as a pain-killer and recreational drug with a high potential for abuse. ®Frequent and regular administration is associated with tolerance, moderate physical dependence, and severe psychological dependence. ®One of the most common methods of illicit heroin use is via intravenous injections with the fastest and most intense rush.

12. Chapter 7 11 Stimulants Chemical substances that act on the CNS to accelerate heart rate and heighten alertness. Addictive with dangers of severe dependence, panic, and withdrawal, depression and sickness. Examples: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines and methamphetamines

13. Chapter 7 Cocaine ®Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant (Erythroxylon coca.) ®A “pinch of coca leaves” was included in the original 1886 recipe for Coca-Cola, and in 1885 the U.S. manufacturer Parke-Davis sold cocaine in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the user’s veins with the included needle.

14. Chapter 7 Probation ®In 1914 the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act outlawed the sale and distribution of cocaine in the United States. This law incorrectly referred to cocaine as a narcotic, and the misclassification passed into popular culture. ® Cocaine was not considered a controlled substance until 1970!

15. Chapter 7 Cocaine ®Cocaine increases levels of dopamine, a brain chemical (or neurotransmitter) associated with pleasure and movement by preventing the dopamine from being recycled. ®Researchers have found that the human liver combines cocaine and alcohol to produce a third substance, cocaethylene, that intensifies cocaine’s euphoric effects. Cocaethylene is associated with a greater risk of sudden death. ®Cocaine is hunger-suppressant.

16. Chapter 7 Cocaine Forms ®The pure chemical, cocaine hydrochloride, has been an abused substance for more than 100 years. ®The powdered, hydrochloride salt form of cocaine can be snorted or dissolved in water and injected. ® Crack is cocaine that has not been neutralized by an acid to make the hydrochloride salt. This form of cocaine comes in a rock crystal that can be heated and its vapors smoked. The term “crack” refers to the crackling sound heard when it is heated.

17. Chapter 7 16 Hallucinogens Chemical substances that alter thought processes, perception, and decision making Mostly naturally occurring substances Addictive with dangers of overdose, permanent neural damage, and dangers of distorted perception (euphoria)

18. Chapter 7 Cannabis ®A genus of flowering plants native to Central and South Asia ®Used for fiber hemp, shown to have legitimate clinical uses (ex: treatment of nausea and vomiting, as well as stimulation of appetite in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy), and as a recreational (illicit) drug

19. Chapter 7 Active Ingredient ®THC - tetrahydrocannabinol ®Synthetic form is dronabinol. It is sold under trade name Marinol, and is Schedule III substance in the US. Comments?

20. Chapter 7 Preparations ®Marijuana – dried leaves and flowers ®Hashish – dried resin from the top of female plant (6-10% of cannabinoids) ®Hash oil – concentrated version (up to 60% cannabinoids) by boiling the hashish in a solvent (alcohol) and filtering residue

21. Chapter 7 Physiological Effects ®Increased heart rate (tachycardia) ®Decreased body temperature ®Dry mouth ®Red eyes ®Decreased size of pupils ®Hunger

22. Chapter 7 LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) ®Most common halluconigen ®Derived from ergot fungus that grows on grains; it is alkaloid ®Odorless, colorless, bitter taste ®Common names “acid”, “battery acid”, “dots” and “doses”

23. Chapter 7 Effects ®UNPREDICTABLE ®LSD “trip” lasts about 12 hours, but severe flashbacks take place for months ®Increased heart rate, body temperature and pressure, profuse sweating, tremors, loss of appetite and sleep ®Possible teratogen (causes birth defects)

24. Chapter 7 MDMA or “Ecstacy” (XTC) (methylenedioxymenthamphetamine) ®Was designed to suppress appetite ®During the 70s and 80s was used for “couples” therapy without official approval (tendency to induce a sense of intimacy with others and diminished feelings of fear, anxiety, and depression) ®Commonly associated with dance parties ("rave“ or “club” drug) ®Slowly metabolized and excreted

25. Chapter 7 24 Depressants Chemical substances that act on the central nervous system to slow physical processes and mental processing and acuity. Most common depressant is ethyl alcohol, the active ingredient in alcoholic beverages. Overuse of depressants causes addiction, withdrawal illness, liver damage and cirrhosis, poor judgment and decision making

26. Chapter 7 25 Barbituates Chemical substances that act on the central nervous system to cause fatigue and drowsiness (“downers”). They are highly addictive and withdrawal is difficult and dangerous. Most are prescribed as sleeping medications (Seconal, Phenobarbital, Nembutal) or anti- anxiety medications (benzodiazepines such as Librium and Valium)

27. Chapter 7 NIDA ®National Institute on Drug Abuse initiated a program to curb drug use by requiring all federal employees be screened prior to employment. ®This program specified that screening could cover only the drugs listed below: Amphetamines, opiates, phencyclidine, cocaine, cannabinoids. 26

28. Chapter 7 27 Identification of Drugs  PDR—Physicians’ Desk Reference  Field Tests—presumptive tests often done on site  Laboratory Tests—conclusive tests done at specialized lab facility

29. Chapter 7 28 Physicians’ Desk Reference PDR—a physicians’ desk reference is used to identify manufactured pills, tablets and capsules. It is updated each year. This can sometimes be a quick and easy identifier of the legally made drugs that may be found at a scene. The reference book gives a picture of the drug, whether it is a prescription, over the counter, or a controlled substance; as well as more detailed information about the drug.

30. Chapter 7 29 Drug Identification Screening or presumptive tests  “Spot” or color tests  Microcrystalline test— a reagent is added that produces a crystalline precipitate which is unique for a certain drug.  Chromatography Confirmatory tests  Spectrophotometry  Ultraviolet (UV)  Visible  Infrared (IR)  Mass spectrometry

31. Chapter 7 30 Presumptive Color Tests  Marquis—turns purple in the presence of most opium derivatives and orange-brown with amphetamines  Dillie-Koppanyi—turns violet-blue in the presence of barbiturates  Duquenois-Levine—turns a purple color in the presence of marijuana  Van Urk—turns a blue-purple in the presence of LSD  Scott test—color test for cocaine, blue

32. Chapter 7 31 Chromatography  A technique for separating mixtures into their components  Includes two phases—a mobile one that flows through a stationary one.  The components of the mixture separate based on their affinities for the mobile or stationary phase.

33. Chapter 7 32 Types of Chromatography  Paper  Thin Layer (TLC)  Gas (GC)  Pyrolysis Gas (PGC)  Liquid (LC)  High Pressure Liquid (HPLC)  Column

34. Chapter 7 33 Paper Chromatography  Stationary phase— paper  Mobile phase—a liquid solvent Capillary action moves the mobile phase through the stationary phase

35. Chapter 7 34 Thin Layer Chromatography  Stationary phase— a thin layer of coating (usually alumina or silica) on a sheet of plastic or glass  Mobile phase— a liquid solvent

36. Chapter 7 35 Retention Factor (R f )  This is a number that represents how far a compound travels in a particular solvent  It is determined by measuring the distance the compound traveled and dividing it by the distance the solvent traveled.  If the R f value for an unknown compound is close to or the same as that for the known compound, the two compounds are likely similar or identical (a match).

37. Chapter 7 36 Gas Chromatography Phases  Stationary—a solid or a viscous liquid that lines a tube or column  Mobile—an inert gas like nitrogen or helium Analysis  Shows a peak that is proportional to the quantity of the substance present  Uses retention time instead of R f for the qualitative analysis

38. Chapter 7 37 Uses of Gas Chromatography  Not considered a confirmation of a controlled substance  Used as a separation tool for mass spectroscopy (MS) and infrared spectroscopy (IR)  Used to quantitatively measure the concentration of a sample. (In a courtroom, there is no real requirement to know the concentration of a substance. It does not affect guilt or innocence).

39. Chapter 7 38 Spectroscopy  Spectroscopy—the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.  Spectrophotometer—an instrument used to measure and record the absorption spectrum of a chemical substance.

40. Chapter 7 39 Spectrophotometry Components  A radiation source  A frequency selector  A sample holder  A detector to convert electromagnetic radiation into an electrical signal  A recorder to produce a record of the signal Types  Ultraviolet  Visible  Infrared

41. Chapter 7 40 Infrared Spectometry  Material absorbs energy in the near-IR region of the electromagnetic spectrum.  Compares the IR light beam before and after passing through a transparent sample.  Result—an absorption or transmittance spectrum  Gives a unique view of the substance; like a fingerprint

42. Chapter 7 41 Mass Spectrometry Gas chromatography has one major drawback, it does not give a specific identification. Mass spectrometry cannot separate mixtures. By combining the two (GCMS), constituents of mixtures can be specifically identified.

43. Chapter 7 42 Mass Spectrometry In a mass spectrometer, an electron beam is directed at sample molecules in a vacuum chamber. The electrons break apart the sample molecules into many positive charged fragments. These are sorted and collected according to their mass-to-charge ratio by an oscillating electric or a magnetic field.

44. Chapter 7 43 Mass Spectra Each molecular species has its own unique mass spectrum.

45. Chapter 7 44 IR Spectrophotometry and Mass Spectrometry  Both work well in identifying pure substances.  Mixtures are difficult to identify in both techniques  Both are compared to a catalog of knowns