1. Acquiring a deeper understanding of text

2.  Diction  Detail  Imagery  Syntax  Tone

3.  Diction is the foundation of voice. Diction refers to the author’s choice of words.  Words are the writer’s basic tools, and words create the color and texture of a text.

4.  Effective voice is shaped by words that are clear, concrete, and exact, thus bringing readers into the scene.  Effective writers avoid words like, “pretty,” “nice,” and “bad.”  Example: A coat is not torn; it is tattered.  Example: The United States does not want revenge; it is thirsting for revenge.  Example: A door does not shut; it thuds.

5.  The author’s purpose partly determines diction.  Example: If the author’s purpose is to inform, the reader should expect straightforward diction. On the other hand, if the author’s purpose is to entertain, the reader will likely encounter words used in ironic, playful, or unexpected ways.

6.  Often, formal diction is reserved for scholarly writing and serious prose or poetry.  Informal diction is the norm in expository essays, newspaper editorials, and works of fiction.  Colloquial diction and slang are typically used to create mood or capture a particular historic or regional dialect.

7.  Denotation is the literal meaning of a word.  Connotation is the meaning suggested by a word.  Example: When a writer calls a character “slender,” the word evokes a different feeling than calling a character “scrawny.”

8.  Includes facts, observations, and incidents used to develop a subject and impart voice.  Detail brings life and color to description, thus focusing the reader’s attention and bringing the reader into the scene.  Details shaped the reader’s attitudes by focusing attention: the more specific the detail, the greater the focus on the subject described

9.  Detail makes an abstraction concrete and particular.  Example: When George Orwell describes an elephant attack, the attack comes alive through the elephant’s specific violent actions.  By directing readers’ attention to these kinds of particulars, detail connects abstraction to their lives: to specifics they can imagine. It allows them to join the action.

10.  Detail can also state by understatement, by a lack of detail.  The absence of detail can show sharp contrasts.  Effective writers choose detail with care, selecting only detail which adds meaning and avoiding detail that trivializes or detracts.

11.  Imagery is the verbal representation of sensory experience.  In literature, all five senses can be represented. ◦ Visual Imagery: sight ◦ Auditory Imagery: sound ◦ Tactile Imagery: touch ◦ Gustatory Imagery: taste ◦ Olfactory Imagery: smell

12.  Imagery depends on both diction and detail; an image’s success in producing a sensory experience results from the specificity of the author’s diction and choice of detail.

13.  Imagery itself is not figurative, but it may be used to impart figurative or symbolic meaning.  Example: A bird's flight may be a metaphor for hope. A river can be associated with life’s journey.

14.  Syntax refers to the way words are arranged within sentences.  Syntax includes: word order, sentence length, sentence focus, and punctuation.  How a writer controls and manipulates the sentence is a strong determiner of voice and imparts personality.

15.  Most English sentences follow a subject- verb-object/complement pattern.  Deviating from this can startle the reader and draw attention to a sentence.  Examples of ways to change word order 1. Inverting subject and verb (Am I ever sorry!) 2. Placing a complement at the beginning of a sentence (Hungry, without a doubt, he is.)

16.  3. Placing an object in front of a verb (Sara I like-not Susan.) Effective writers switch between conformity and nonconformity. This prevents reader complacency without using unusual sentence structure to the point of distraction.

17.  Writers vary sentence length to prevent boredom and to control emphasis.  A short sentence following a much longer sentence shifts the reader’s attention, which emphasizes the meaning and importance of the short sentence.  Many modern writers put key ideas in short sentences.

18.  Sentence focus deals with variation and emphasis within a sentence.  Typically, main ideas are expressed at the beginning of a sentence (loose sentence).  Sentence focus is generally achieved by syntactic tension and repetition.  Syntactic tension is the withholding of syntactic closure until the end of the sentence (periodic sentence). These sentences carry high tension and interest.

19.  Repetition is another way to achieve sentence focus. Purposeful repetition of a word, phrase, or clause emphasizes the repeated structure and focuses the reader’s attention on its meaning.  Writers can also repeat parallel grammatical forms. This balances ideas and gives them equal weight.  Example: I like her eyes, her hair, and her smile.

20.  Punctuation is used to reinforce meaning, construct effect, and express voice.  Of particular interest in shaping voice is the semicolon, the colon, and the dash.

21.  The semicolon gives equal weight to two or more independent clauses in a sentence. This results in syntactical balance, which reinforces parallel ideas and imparts equal importance to the clauses.  Example: Jane is kind; she is also smart.

22.  The colon directs reader attention to the words that follow. It can also be used between independent clauses if the second summarizes or explains the first.  A colon sets the expectation that important, closely related words will follow, and words after the colon are emphasized.  Example: I want an assistant that can do the following: (1) input data, (2) write reports, and (3) complete tax forms.

23.  The dash marks a sudden change in thought or tone, sets off a brief summary, or sets off a parenthetical part of the sentence.  Often, the dash conveys a casual tone.  Example: An honest politician—if such a creature exists—would never agree to such a plan.

24.  Tone is the expression of attitude. It is the writer’s (or speaker’s) implied attitude toward a subject.  The writer creates tone by selection (diction) and arrangement (syntax) of words, and by purposeful use of details and images.  Tone sets the relationship between reader and writer.  See sheet from earlier in the semester for words to describe tone.