1. Psychology’s Past The people, ideas, and developments that helped shape psychology as we know it

2. It all started with philosophy…

3. The Ancient Greek Philosophers Plato – in the 4 th century B.C., he explored the way government can influence individual behavior in The Republic. Believed that knowledge came from reflection and thinking (the brain, “nature”). Plato – in the 4 th century B.C., he explored the way government can influence individual behavior in The Republic. Believed that knowledge came from reflection and thinking (the brain, “nature”). Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) – Plato’s student. Believed that knowledge came from experience (the heart, “nurture”). Discussed the nature of sensory perception in his Poetics. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) – Plato’s student. Believed that knowledge came from experience (the heart, “nurture”). Discussed the nature of sensory perception in his Poetics. They were the first Europeans to reason that human beings have, in addition to a physical body, some kind of apparatus used for thinking, which they called the “psyche” (mind). They were the first Europeans to reason that human beings have, in addition to a physical body, some kind of apparatus used for thinking, which they called the “psyche” (mind).

4. Fast forward through time… René Descartes (1637) – French philosopher who believed in dualism (humans have a dual nature – one part mental and the other physical). Also believed that we are born with innate ideas (“nature”). René Descartes (1637) – French philosopher who believed in dualism (humans have a dual nature – one part mental and the other physical). Also believed that we are born with innate ideas (“nature”). John Locke (1690) – British philosopher who rejected Descartes’ notion of innate ideas and insisted that the mind at birth is a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) (“nurture”). John Locke (1690) – British philosopher who rejected Descartes’ notion of innate ideas and insisted that the mind at birth is a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) (“nurture”). Not to be confused with this John Locke!

6. Phrenology In the 18 th century, philosophers believed that every mental activity (loving, reading, long division) was viewed as the work of a particular area of the mind. In the 18 th century, philosophers believed that every mental activity (loving, reading, long division) was viewed as the work of a particular area of the mind. In 1808, Franz Joseph Gall, a German physician, promotes the idea of phrenology: the shape of a person’s skull reveals mental faculties and character traits. In 1808, Franz Joseph Gall, a German physician, promotes the idea of phrenology: the shape of a person’s skull reveals mental faculties and character traits.

7. A Major Breakthrough Charles Darwin (1859) – publishes On the Origin of Species, suggesting a biological kinship between humans and animals. Charles Darwin (1859) – publishes On the Origin of Species, suggesting a biological kinship between humans and animals. For psychologists, this would mean that some discoveries about animal biology and behavior could be applied to people. (For example, pioneering research on nerve impulses in frogs helped psychologists understand human reflexes). For psychologists, this would mean that some discoveries about animal biology and behavior could be applied to people. (For example, pioneering research on nerve impulses in frogs helped psychologists understand human reflexes). By studying less complex beings (such as animals), By studying less complex beings (such as animals), Darwin believed we could apply the information gained to a Darwin believed we could apply the information gained to a better understanding of ourselves. better understanding of ourselves.

8. And Finally… Psychology Becomes a Science Before we go any further, you need to understand that the science of psychology has gone through about 6 different waves since it started. Before we go any further, you need to understand that the science of psychology has gone through about 6 different waves since it started. “Waves” are different ways of thinking over time. “Waves” are different ways of thinking over time.

9. Wave 1: Structuralism and Introspection In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany. In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany. Finally, Wundt succeeded in separating psychology from philosophy and physiology by evaluating the way the mind worked through scientific investigation, not simply by way of argument. Finally, Wundt succeeded in separating psychology from philosophy and physiology by evaluating the way the mind worked through scientific investigation, not simply by way of argument. Wundt single-handedly trained 180 students in his laboratory, and those students took their knowledge of experimental psychology home with them. Wundt single-handedly trained 180 students in his laboratory, and those students took their knowledge of experimental psychology home with them. Kickin’ it old school

10. Structuralism Derived from Wundt’s work Derived from Wundt’s work Wundt believed that the science of psychology should study the conscious mind. Influenced by the physical scientists of his time (the periodic table had just been developed), Wundt embraced the atomic theory of matter, which stated that all complex substances could be separated into components and analyzed. Wundt believed that the science of psychology should study the conscious mind. Influenced by the physical scientists of his time (the periodic table had just been developed), Wundt embraced the atomic theory of matter, which stated that all complex substances could be separated into components and analyzed. Wundt wished to divide the mind into mental elements. Wundt wished to divide the mind into mental elements.

11. Introspection Wundt used this experimental method where participants reported the content of their own minds as objectively as possible, usually in connection with stimuli such as light, sound, or odors. Wundt used this experimental method where participants reported the content of their own minds as objectively as possible, usually in connection with stimuli such as light, sound, or odors. The participants’ verbal reports were analyzed to see the number and types of mental elements they contained. The participants’ verbal reports were analyzed to see the number and types of mental elements they contained. Although Wundt specially trained his participants in introspection methods, many people questioned the reliability of subjective reports of the mind’s activities because they are easily manipulated by both the participant and the experimenter. Although Wundt specially trained his participants in introspection methods, many people questioned the reliability of subjective reports of the mind’s activities because they are easily manipulated by both the participant and the experimenter. Try some introspection yourself!

12. Wave 2: Functionalism William James William James Considered the founder of psychology in the U.S. Considered the founder of psychology in the U.S. Wrote the first psychology textbook, Principles of Psychology Wrote the first psychology textbook, Principles of Psychology One of the most vocal of Wundt’s critics – he said that structuralism’s approach was far too narrow (and boring!) One of the most vocal of Wundt’s critics – he said that structuralism’s approach was far too narrow (and boring!)  He thought that psychology should include the function of consciousness, not just its structure. In other words, why consciousness, not just its structure. In other words, why does the mind work the way it does? does the mind work the way it does?  This new way of thinking about consciousness was called, appropriately enough, functionalism. appropriately enough, functionalism.

13. Functionalism In a famous metaphor, William James pictured a “stream of consciousness” as a mental process that had no static structure but was continually flowing, changing, and interacting with the environment. In a famous metaphor, William James pictured a “stream of consciousness” as a mental process that had no static structure but was continually flowing, changing, and interacting with the environment. Because of this, James found Darwin’s ideas much more interesting than Wundt’s. Because of this, James found Darwin’s ideas much more interesting than Wundt’s. Functionalists were really the first applied psychologists. They thought that psychology should explain how/why people adapt – or fail to adapt – to the everyday world outside the laboratory. Functionalists were really the first applied psychologists. They thought that psychology should explain how/why people adapt – or fail to adapt – to the everyday world outside the laboratory. Use “Journal Entry 1.3” to help you think about functionalist techniques. Use “Journal Entry 1.3” to help you think about functionalist techniques.

14. A Student Makes a Mark of His Own G. Stanley Hall (functionalist) G. Stanley Hall (functionalist) An American who went to Germany to learn An American who went to Germany to learn from Wundt and also studied with William James at Harvard As James’ student, he earned the first PhD in psychology As James’ student, he earned the first PhD in psychology Opened the first psychology laboratory in the U.S. in 1883 (at Johns Hopkins in Baltimore), establishing psychology as a science in this country. Opened the first psychology laboratory in the U.S. in 1883 (at Johns Hopkins in Baltimore), establishing psychology as a science in this country. Founded the first scientific journal in American psychology (American Journal of Psychology) in 1887 Founded the first scientific journal in American psychology (American Journal of Psychology) in 1887 Founded the American Psychological Association (APA) and became its first president in 1892. Founded the American Psychological Association (APA) and became its first president in 1892.

15. Wave 3: Gestalt Psychology – Focus on the Whole Instead of the Parts Another challenge to Wundt’s structuralism came from a group in Germany that believed in an approach almost completely opposite that of structuralism. Another challenge to Wundt’s structuralism came from a group in Germany that believed in an approach almost completely opposite that of structuralism. They sought to understand how the mind works by studying perception and perceptual learning. They were interested in how we construct “perceptual wholes” (or Gestalts, in German) such as our perception of a face, rather than just a conglomeration of colors, lines, and textures. They sought to understand how the mind works by studying perception and perceptual learning. They were interested in how we construct “perceptual wholes” (or Gestalts, in German) such as our perception of a face, rather than just a conglomeration of colors, lines, and textures. Gestalt psychologists focus not on how we feel, but on how we experience the world. They said that the whole of an experience can be more than the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychologists focus not on how we feel, but on how we experience the world. They said that the whole of an experience can be more than the sum of its parts. For example, think for a moment of all of the reasons that you love your mom. If you add all of those reasons up, do they equal your love for your mom? Hopefully not! For example, think for a moment of all of the reasons that you love your mom. If you add all of those reasons up, do they equal your love for your mom? Hopefully not! Max Wertheimer was a prominent Gestalt psychologist who studied visual illusions and ambiguous figures such as the Necker cube. Max Wertheimer was a prominent Gestalt psychologist who studied visual illusions and ambiguous figures such as the Necker cube.

16. Max Wertheimer and his “perceptual wholes”

17. Wave 4: Psychoanalysis This wave of thinking started with Sigmund Freud (in the early 1900’s). This wave of thinking started with Sigmund Freud (in the early 1900’s). In a nutshell, during this time period people believed that most of your feelings come from a hidden place in your mind called the unconscious. In a nutshell, during this time period people believed that most of your feelings come from a hidden place in your mind called the unconscious. We protect ourselves from our real feeling by using defense mechanisms. We protect ourselves from our real feeling by using defense mechanisms.

18. Wave 5: Behaviorism – Eliminate the Mind and Focus on Behavior The Behaviorists came along in the early to mid-1900’s and disagreed with just about everyone thus far. The Behaviorists came along in the early to mid-1900’s and disagreed with just about everyone thus far. They said consciousness should not be a part of psychology at all, and they rejected introspection completely. They said consciousness should not be a part of psychology at all, and they rejected introspection completely. Behaviorism asserts that psychology can be a true science only if it examines observable behavior, not ideas, thoughts, feelings or motives since they cannot be directly measured. Behaviorism asserts that psychology can be a true science only if it examines observable behavior, not ideas, thoughts, feelings or motives since they cannot be directly measured. They cared nothing about what people were thinking; instead, they wanted to know how people would act (or behave). They believed that true science couldn’t be about how you feel; all that mattered was how you acted, because that can be observed and measured. They cared nothing about what people were thinking; instead, they wanted to know how people would act (or behave). They believed that true science couldn’t be about how you feel; all that mattered was how you acted, because that can be observed and measured. Behaviorists believe that all behavior comes from experience (back to John Locke’s ideas about the blank slate). Behaviorists believe that all behavior comes from experience (back to John Locke’s ideas about the blank slate).

19. The Two Most Famous Behaviorists John B. Watson – in 1913, he was the leader of the behavioral movement. He argued that we should study the science of behavior – not of the mind. Observed stimuli from the environment and the organism’s responses. John B. Watson – in 1913, he was the leader of the behavioral movement. He argued that we should study the science of behavior – not of the mind. Observed stimuli from the environment and the organism’s responses. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) – largely responsible for making behaviorism the major approach in experimental psychology, a position it held for nearly 50 years. Skinner modified Watson’s ideas and argued that consequences shape behavior. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) – largely responsible for making behaviorism the major approach in experimental psychology, a position it held for nearly 50 years. Skinner modified Watson’s ideas and argued that consequences shape behavior.

20. So what is psychology now? Early on, when psychology only focused on consciousness, it was defined as “the science of mental life.” Early on, when psychology only focused on consciousness, it was defined as “the science of mental life.” Since the 1920’s and the behaviorists, however, it began to also include “the scientific study of observable behavior.” Since the 1920’s and the behaviorists, however, it began to also include “the scientific study of observable behavior.” Today, psychology is defined as “the scientific study of behavior and mental processes,” and the various approaches have continued to expand. Today, psychology is defined as “the scientific study of behavior and mental processes,” and the various approaches have continued to expand.

21. Wave 6: Eclecticism We are now in wave six….which is about variety. We are now in wave six….which is about variety. Psychologists pick and choose what theories to use depending on the situation and the client. Psychologists pick and choose what theories to use depending on the situation and the client. Eclecticism is defined as the process of making your own system by borrowing from two or more other systems. Eclecticism is defined as the process of making your own system by borrowing from two or more other systems.

22. Wave Six is made up of about 7 different perspectives. In other words, psychologists today pick and choose from about 7 schools of thought to help you with your problems. In other words, psychologists today pick and choose from about 7 schools of thought to help you with your problems. Though each approach is based on principles that seem to contradict the other approaches, they all offer “intelligent guesses” to the nature of human behavior. While many psychologists will identify with a single approach, others prefer to pick and choose from each approach… they are eclectic. Though each approach is based on principles that seem to contradict the other approaches, they all offer “intelligent guesses” to the nature of human behavior. While many psychologists will identify with a single approach, others prefer to pick and choose from each approach… they are eclectic. Thus we have: THE SEVEN SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

23. The Seven Approaches Psychology, in some ways, resembles a slightly dysfunctional family – few common interests and lots of family squabbles. Psychology, in some ways, resembles a slightly dysfunctional family – few common interests and lots of family squabbles. There are several different perspectives in psychology, and the champions of each view see behavior and mental processes in a slightly different way – much like seven artists portraying the same scene from different vantage points. There are several different perspectives in psychology, and the champions of each view see behavior and mental processes in a slightly different way – much like seven artists portraying the same scene from different vantage points.

24. Biological Sometimes also referred to as biopsychological or the neuroscience approach. Sometimes also referred to as biopsychological or the neuroscience approach. Emphasizes how our physical makeup and the operation of our brains influence our personality, preferences, behavior patterns, and abilities. In other words, all of our feelings and behaviors have an organic root. Emphasizes how our physical makeup and the operation of our brains influence our personality, preferences, behavior patterns, and abilities. In other words, all of our feelings and behaviors have an organic root. Search for the causes of behavior in heredity, the nervous system, the endocrine (hormone) system, and disease. Search for the causes of behavior in heredity, the nervous system, the endocrine (hormone) system, and disease. Advantages? Disadvantages? Advantages? Disadvantages?

25. Evolutionary A variation on the biological view that draws on Darwin’s ideas. A variation on the biological view that draws on Darwin’s ideas. Suggests that many human traits arise from hereditary characteristics established in our remote ancestral past. Suggests that many human traits arise from hereditary characteristics established in our remote ancestral past. Our genetic makeup – including our most deeply ingrained behaviors – were shaped by the conditions our ancestors faced thousands of years ago. Our genetic makeup – including our most deeply ingrained behaviors – were shaped by the conditions our ancestors faced thousands of years ago. In other words, we behave the way we do because we inherited those behaviors; thus, those behaviors must have helped ensure our ancestors’ survival. In other words, we behave the way we do because we inherited those behaviors; thus, those behaviors must have helped ensure our ancestors’ survival. Advantages? Disadvantages? Advantages? Disadvantages? How could this behavior have ensured Homer’s ancestors’ survival?

26. Cognitive The heirs to the early experiential psychologists. The heirs to the early experiential psychologists. Our thoughts and actions arise from the way we interpret our experiences. Our thoughts and actions arise from the way we interpret our experiences. Concerned with the processes of thinking and memory, attention, imagery, creativity, problem solving, and language use. Concerned with the processes of thinking and memory, attention, imagery, creativity, problem solving, and language use. Discuss the mental processes which determine what humans can perceive, or communicate, as well as how they think. Discuss the mental processes which determine what humans can perceive, or communicate, as well as how they think. Cognitive therapists attempt to change the way you think. Cognitive therapists attempt to change the way you think. Advantages? Disadvantages? Advantages? Disadvantages?

27. Psychodynamic The term psychodynamic comes from the belief that the mind (psyche) is a reservoir of energy (dynamics). The term psychodynamic comes from the belief that the mind (psyche) is a reservoir of energy (dynamics). We are motivated primarily by the energy of irrational desires generated in our unconscious minds. We are motivated primarily by the energy of irrational desires generated in our unconscious minds. We repress many of our true feelings in our unconscious mind and are not aware of them. In order to get better, we must bring forward the feelings we have in our unconscious so that they can be dealt with. We repress many of our true feelings in our unconscious mind and are not aware of them. In order to get better, we must bring forward the feelings we have in our unconscious so that they can be dealt with. Sigmund Freud is the best known representative of this approach. Sigmund Freud is the best known representative of this approach. The mind is a sort of mental boiler that holds the rising pressure of unconscious sexual and destructive desires, along with memories of traumatic events. The mind is a sort of mental boiler that holds the rising pressure of unconscious sexual and destructive desires, along with memories of traumatic events. Stressed early childhood experiences determine later behavior Stressed early childhood experiences determine later behavior Negative view of humanity (aggression, sex) Negative view of humanity (aggression, sex) Advantages? Disadvantages? Advantages? Disadvantages? If a man has intimacy issues and cannot form relationships with others, what do you think someone from this perspective may think? Perhaps they may delve into the man’s unconscious and discover that he was bullied when he was younger. The bullying may have caused an unconscious fear in getting close to others.

28. Humanistic Carl Rogers founder, Abraham Maslow also a big name Carl Rogers founder, Abraham Maslow also a big name Emerged as a revolt against behaviorism and psychoanalytic approaches Emerged as a revolt against behaviorism and psychoanalytic approaches This perspective peaked in the late 1960s and ’70s, so it focused on spirituality and free will. This perspective peaked in the late 1960s and ’70s, so it focused on spirituality and free will. Our actions are hugely influenced by our self-concept and by our need for personal growth and fulfillment. We have to strive to be the best we can be (“self-actualization”). Our actions are hugely influenced by our self-concept and by our need for personal growth and fulfillment. We have to strive to be the best we can be (“self-actualization”). Humanists emphasize the positive side of our nature: human ability, growth, and potential. Humanists emphasize the positive side of our nature: human ability, growth, and potential. Believe in the inherent goodness of human beings Believe in the inherent goodness of human beings Emphasize the free will people have to make choices affecting their lives, and press psychology to take a greater interest in feelings and the self- concept. Emphasize the free will people have to make choices affecting their lives, and press psychology to take a greater interest in feelings and the self- concept. Happiness is defined by the distance between our “self-concept” and our “ideal self”. Happiness is defined by the distance between our “self-concept” and our “ideal self”. Unconditional Positive Regard Unconditional Positive Regard

29. Behavioral We should look for the causes of our behavior in our environment rather than in our biology or in our minds. We should look for the causes of our behavior in our environment rather than in our biology or in our minds. They have made their greatest contribution by giving us a detailed understanding of how the environment affects learning – especially through rewards and punishments. They have made their greatest contribution by giving us a detailed understanding of how the environment affects learning – especially through rewards and punishments. They only care about behaviors that impair our living, and attempt to change them. They only care about behaviors that impair our living, and attempt to change them. To change behaviors, we have to recondition the client. To change behaviors, we have to recondition the client. This was the approach started by John Watson and B.F. Skinner. This was the approach started by John Watson and B.F. Skinner. Advantages? Disadvantages? Advantages? Disadvantages? If you bit your fingernails when you were nervous, a behaviorist would not focus on calming you down, but rather focus on how to stop you from biting your nails.

30. Sociocultural Focus on the idea of social influence. Focus on the idea of social influence. As a complex blend of human language, beliefs, customs, values, and traditions, culture exerts powerful influences on all of us. As a complex blend of human language, beliefs, customs, values, and traditions, culture exerts powerful influences on all of us. Much of our behavior and our feelings are dictated by the culture we live in. Much of our behavior and our feelings are dictated by the culture we live in. Advantages? Disadvantages? Advantages? Disadvantages? Even in the same high school, behaviors can change in accordance to the various subcultures.

32. A Mnemonic to Help You Remember the 7 Approaches Each finger on your hand and the palm can represent a different perspective: Each finger on your hand and the palm can represent a different perspective: The thumb = Psychodynamic The thumb = Psychodynamic Stick out your thumb and make a gesture over your shoulder while turning your head in that direction. You are “looking back,” just as a psychodynamic psychologist does when they are focusing on the past and unconscious conflicts stemming from childhood. Stick out your thumb and make a gesture over your shoulder while turning your head in that direction. You are “looking back,” just as a psychodynamic psychologist does when they are focusing on the past and unconscious conflicts stemming from childhood. The index finger = Cognitive The index finger = Cognitive Point to your head like you are thinking. The cognitive perspective looks at how we process, store, and interpret information. Point to your head like you are thinking. The cognitive perspective looks at how we process, store, and interpret information. The middle finger = Behavioral The middle finger = Behavioral How do you know what it means to “flip someone off”? You learned it. This relates to the idea of rewards, punishments, and modeling. Flipping the bird is also an observable behavior, and behaviorists focus on what can be seen and measured only. How do you know what it means to “flip someone off”? You learned it. This relates to the idea of rewards, punishments, and modeling. Flipping the bird is also an observable behavior, and behaviorists focus on what can be seen and measured only. The ring finger = Humanistic The ring finger = Humanistic Try to lift your ring finger straight (without any other fingers going up also) – it can’t be done! Now use your other fingers to push it up… much better. Humanists believe that we need others to help us “reach our fullest potential,” and Rogers’ theory of unconditional positive regard does the trick. Try to lift your ring finger straight (without any other fingers going up also) – it can’t be done! Now use your other fingers to push it up… much better. Humanists believe that we need others to help us “reach our fullest potential,” and Rogers’ theory of unconditional positive regard does the trick. The pinky finger = Biological The pinky finger = Biological Finish my sentence: “Pinky and the ______.” Behaviorists look at the tie between our behavior and our biology. But our knowledge base for this is still relatively small – like our pinky. Finish my sentence: “Pinky and the ______.” Behaviorists look at the tie between our behavior and our biology. But our knowledge base for this is still relatively small – like our pinky. The palm = Sociocultural The palm = Sociocultural Make a “gathering” movement with both hands, bringing them to your chest. We are gathering all people together, all cultures. To understand others we must understand the culture they are from. Differences are good! Make a “gathering” movement with both hands, bringing them to your chest. We are gathering all people together, all cultures. To understand others we must understand the culture they are from. Differences are good! The “evolved sixth finger” = Evolutionary The “evolved sixth finger” = Evolutionary Hold up a finger from your other hand and pretend that you have 6 fingers instead of 5. Evolutionary psychologists focus on how traits/behaviors evolve over time (usually aided our ancestors’ survival or increased their genetic line) Hold up a finger from your other hand and pretend that you have 6 fingers instead of 5. Evolutionary psychologists focus on how traits/behaviors evolve over time (usually aided our ancestors’ survival or increased their genetic line)

33. Applying the 7 Approaches to Real- Life Situations: Andrea Yates On June 20, 2001, after her husband had left for work, Andrea Yates, a Houston mother, drowned her five children in the family bathtub. She told police she drowned them to save them from burning in hell. A jury rejected her insanity defense, and she was sentenced to serve life at a psychiatric prison. In a second trial (the first was appealed), the jury acquitted her, and she was sent to a hospital, not prison. On June 20, 2001, after her husband had left for work, Andrea Yates, a Houston mother, drowned her five children in the family bathtub. She told police she drowned them to save them from burning in hell. A jury rejected her insanity defense, and she was sentenced to serve life at a psychiatric prison. In a second trial (the first was appealed), the jury acquitted her, and she was sent to a hospital, not prison.

34. What do you believe to be the causes of Andrea Yates’ murder of her children?

35. Biological Research indicates that brain chemistry plays a role in psychological disorder. Yates was diagnosed as suffering from postpartum depression with psychosis, and she had been taken off her antipsychotic medication about a month before the children’s deaths. Andrea’s husband, Russell, claimed he had been pleading with doctors to again prescribe Haldol, used in treating people who hear voices or have delusional thoughts. Research indicates that brain chemistry plays a role in psychological disorder. Yates was diagnosed as suffering from postpartum depression with psychosis, and she had been taken off her antipsychotic medication about a month before the children’s deaths. Andrea’s husband, Russell, claimed he had been pleading with doctors to again prescribe Haldol, used in treating people who hear voices or have delusional thoughts. Mood disorders run in families and Andrea’s was no exception. A sister and 2 brothers were also on antidepressants. Mood disorders run in families and Andrea’s was no exception. A sister and 2 brothers were also on antidepressants.

36. Cognitive Do we find the cause in her private mental functioning? Do we find the cause in her private mental functioning? Andrea experienced low self-esteem. Andrea experienced low self-esteem. At the time she killed her children, she believed she was possessed and that the sign of Satan (666) was marked on her scalp. At the time she killed her children, she believed she was possessed and that the sign of Satan (666) was marked on her scalp. She told the police that her children “weren’t developing correctly” and that drowning them was the only way to save them. She told the police that her children “weren’t developing correctly” and that drowning them was the only way to save them.

37. Psychodynamic Andrea was ruled by her irrational (and unconscious) desire to be free from the burden of so many children and the life of a submissive housewife. These desires resulted in her drastic actions. Andrea was ruled by her irrational (and unconscious) desire to be free from the burden of so many children and the life of a submissive housewife. These desires resulted in her drastic actions.

38. Behavioral Doctors had strongly recommended no more children when they saw how seriously ill (mentally) Andrea was becoming with each child. Yet, her husband ignored their warnings and impregnated her a fifth time. Is it possible that Andrea saw her previously loving care only resulting in the punishment of more children and more responsibility, and therefore, she changed her actions towards the children to achieve a different result? Doctors had strongly recommended no more children when they saw how seriously ill (mentally) Andrea was becoming with each child. Yet, her husband ignored their warnings and impregnated her a fifth time. Is it possible that Andrea saw her previously loving care only resulting in the punishment of more children and more responsibility, and therefore, she changed her actions towards the children to achieve a different result?

39. Sociocultural The individualism of American society plays a critical role in its accelerating rate of depression. The individualism of American society plays a critical role in its accelerating rate of depression. Her extended family was not around to help when she needed them so desperately. Her extended family was not around to help when she needed them so desperately. Her husband was not socially supportive. He claimed he had never changed a diaper. How could he leave her alone with the five children when she could barely care for herself? Her husband was not socially supportive. He claimed he had never changed a diaper. How could he leave her alone with the five children when she could barely care for herself? Why did her doctor take her off her antipsychotic medication? Why did her doctor take her off her antipsychotic medication?

40. How Psychology Developed Psychology Today Seven Unifying Themes Personal Application 187018801890190019101920193019401950196019701980199020002010 1875 First demonstration laboratories are set up independently by William James (at Harvard) and Wilhelm Wundt (at the University of Leipzig). 1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes first research laboratory in psychology at Leipzig, Germany. 1881 Wilhelm Wundt establishes first journal devoted to research in psychology. 1883 G. Stanley Hall establishes America’s first research laboratory in psychology at Johns Hopkins University. 1890 William James publishes his seminal work, The Principles of Psychology. 1892 G. Stanley Hall founds American Psychological Association. 1913 John B. Watson writes classic behaviorism manifesto, arguing that psychology should study only observable behavior. 1914 Leta Hollingworth publishes pioneering work on the psychology of women. 1914 - 1918 Widespread intelligence testing is begun by military during World War I. 1916 Lewis Terman publishes Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, which becomes the world’s foremost intelligence test. 1920s Gestalt pychology nears its peak influence. 1933 Sigmund Freud’s influence continues to build as he publishes New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis. 1904 Ivan Pavlov shows how conditioned responses are created, paving the way for Stimulus response psychology. 1905 Alfred Binet develops first successful intelligence test in France. 1908 Margaret Washburn publishes The Animal Mind, which serves as an impetus for behaviorism. 1909 Sigmund Freud’s increasing influence receives formal recognition as G. S. Hall invites Freud to give lectures at Clark University. 1941 - 1945 Rapid growth in clinical psychology begins in response to huge demand for clinical services created by World War II and its aftermath. 1947 Kenneth and Mamie Clark publish work on prejudice that is cited in landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation. 1950 Erik Erikson writes Childhood and Society in which he extends Freud’s theory of Development across the life span. 1951 Carl Rogers helps launch humanistic movement with publication of Client-Centered Therapy. 1953 B. F. Skinner publishes his influential Science and Human Behavior, advocating radical behaviorism similar to Watson’s. 1954 Abraham Maslow’s Motivation and Personality helps fuel humanistic movement. 1956 The cognitive revolution is launched at watershed conference where Herbert Simon, George Miller, and Noam Chomsky report three major advances in just one day. 1961-1964 Roger Sperry’s split-brain research and work by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel on how cortical cells respond to light help rejuvenate the biological perspective in psychology. 1963 Stanley Milgram conducts controversial study of obedience to authority, which may be the most famous single study in psychology’s history. 1971 B. F. Skinner creates furor over radical behaviorism with his controversial book Beyond Freedom and Dignity. 1974 Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin publish their landmark review of research on gender differences, which galvanizes research in this area. 1978 Herbert Simon wins Nobel prize (in economics) for research on cognition. 1980s Increased global interdependence and cultural diversity in Western societies spark surge of interest in how cultural factors mold behavior. 1981 Roger Sperry wins Nobel prize (in physiology and medicine) for split-brain studies. 1988 Research psychologists form American Psychological Society (APS) to serve as an advocate for the science of psychology. Early 1990s Evolutionary psychology emerges as a major new theoretical perspective. 1990s The repressed memories controversy stimulates influential research by Elizabeth Loftus and others on the malleability and fallibility of human memory. Late 1990s Martin Seligman launches the positive psychology movement. 2000 Eric Kandel wins Nobel Prize (in physiology and medicine) for his research on the biochemistry of memory. 2002 Daniel Kahneman wins Nobel Prize (in economics) for his research on decision making.