1. Chapter 2: Extent of Crime and Victimization Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

2. Extent of Crime and Victimization How much crime is there in the United States? What are the victimization trends in the United States? Are there differences by race? The Bureau of Justice Statistics is the primary statistical agency in the U.S. Department of Justice. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

3. History of Crime and Victimization Statistics in the United States The history of crime statistics in the United States dates back to the 19th century. Several state legislatures mandated the collection of statistics on crime and criminals. Two categories (judicial and prison statistics) New York (1829), Massachusetts (1834), and Pennsylvania (1847) required crime and justice statistics. Most other states mandated prison statistics in the 1800s or early in the 20th century. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

4. History of Crime and Victimization Statistics in the United States, cont. Beginning in 1850, U.S. Marshals collected information on inhabitants of jails and penitentiaries. In addition to counting inmates, data were collected on the sex, age, nativity, and color of persons convicted and prisoners. In 1870, Congress passed a law requiring the attorney general to report annual statistics on crime. In the 1800s, lynching was not always viewed as a crime. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

5. History of Crime and Victimization Statistics in the United States, cont. Data on lynching were collected by the Chicago Tribune. Reported lynchings appeared to be most frequent between 1884 and 1901. Between 1882 and 1968, 4,742 lynchings were recorded, and 3,445 of the victims were Black. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

6. The Uniform Crime Reporting Program In 1930, the FBI began collecting data from police departments. Police departments compile information on crimes reported, cleared, persons arrested, and law enforcement personnel. Data are forward to either a state UCR program or directly to the FBI. Problems? Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

7. The Uniform Crime Reporting Program, cont. Eight offenses comprised the crime index: 1. murder/nonnegligent manslaughter 2. forcible rape 3. robbery 4. aggravated assault 5. burglary 6. larceny/theft 7. motor vehicle theft 8. arson Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

8. The Uniform Crime Reporting Program, cont. In 1980 the UCR renamed arrest categories to include American Indian or Alaskan Native, and Asian or Pacific Islander. George H.W. Bush signed the Hate Crime Statistics Act into law in April 1990. FBI developed the National Hate Crime Data Collection Program and began reporting hate crime statistics in 1992. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vKm3E4CCj2A Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

10. Victimization Surveys In 1972, the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration implemented the NCS (National Crime Survey). In 1992, it was redesigned and named the National Crime Victimization Survey. In 2000, questions were added to the NCVS to identify victims of hate crimes. Enhanced screening questions are believed to have improved recall of respondents about domestic violence, rape, and sexual attacks, which has led to higher estimates of some victimization rates. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

11. Limitations of Arrest and Victimization Data The 2000 census expanded racial categories to account for multiracial Americans. One problem is the classification of persons of Hispanic origin. Racial data first appeared in the UCR in 1933 and included three categories, Whites, Blacks, and Others. Today, there are four racial categories: White, Black, American Indian and Alaskan Native, and Asian and Pacific Islander. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

12. Limitations of Arrest and Victimization Data, cont. The “Other” category in the NCVS Reports were used for American Indians and Asians; Hispanics were omitted until 1977 and they are not reported in the 2006 NCVS publication. Racial categories do not account for ethnic differences within groups (e.g., Jamaican, Haitian, African). In the UCR, police officers often make discretionary determinations about both arrestees and victims. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

13. Variations in Reporting and Recording For various reasons, citizens do not report and police do not record all crimes. WHY? Police selectively enforce the law, which contributes to variations by race. Variations in crime categories causes discrepancies. Recording only the most serious crimes is also problematic for the UCR (hierarchy rule) which is why we have NIBRS. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

14. Variations in Reporting and Recording, cont. Recording and reporting discrepancies also affect the NCVS, since the accuracy in reporting victimizations remains unknown. The United States is one of very few countries that collects race crime statistics. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

15. Variations in Reporting and Recording, cont. Recent research by Higgins and Gabbidon found that more than half of those surveyed in a state-wide Pennsylvania poll did not support the recording of arrest statistics by race. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

16. Several of the problems with the NCVS samples: Representativeness of the samples Survey estimates are based on sampling units that may not adequately capture all racial groups in the population. For Asians and American Indians, the sample size is so small that it affects the reliability of the estimate.

17. Scholars continue to rely on the UCR and NCVS to gauge the extent of crime and victimization. Comparisons of White and Black arrestees and victims have been a major focus in the study of race and crime. Comparisons have resulted in misperceptions about race and crime. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

18. Arrest Trends The UCR provide data on four violent crimes against the person: 1. murder (and non-negligent manslaughter) 2. forcible rape 3. robbery 4. aggravated assault Recent trends show Whites arrested more often than Blacks for aggravated assaults and rapes. Between 1994 and 2000, total arrests steadily decreased, and fluctuated slightly from year to year for all racial categories. Since 2000, arrests have continued to fluctuate and decreased in 2010.

19. Victimization Trends The NCVS periodically publishes other reports that present victimization trends and analyses of victimization within racial groups. Violent victimization rates (VVR) are highest among American Indians and African Americans. 25 million violent and property crime victimizations (12 and older) in 2006. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

20. . Homicide victimizations are reported annually in the UCR Supplementary Homicide Reports and have been published in the NCVS as well. Most victims of homicides are males, although White females are more likely to be victims of intimate homicides. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

21. Hate Crime Trends The terms hate or bias crimes refer to offenses committed against individuals because of their race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disability. As long as hate/bias statistics have been available, most offenses reported are motivated by anti-Black bias. According to the NCVS, half of victims of hate crimes reported perceiving race as the primary offender motivation. Hate crime is more likely than street crime to involve crimes against the person than crimes against property. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

22. Hate Crime Trends, cont. Although there were fewer crimes against property, vandalism ranked second to intimidation in hate/bias crime incidents. Hate crime also is more likely to be interracial; the race of most known offenders is White. BJS study found that younger offenders were responsible for most hate crimes. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

23. Conclusion For more than 70 years, the UCR has been the primary source of crime statistics. For over 30 years, the NCVS has provided victimization data. While the data provide information about race and crime, racial categories in each data set is problematic. Fewer persons are arrested for violent personal crimes. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012

24. Conclusion, cont. Fixation on violent crimes has contributed to the racialization of crime. Thus, many Americans equate crime with minorities. Hate crimes reveal a dimension of race and crime that is ignored: Blacks are more likely to be the victims of bias crimes than any other group. Race and Crime, 3e © SAGE Publications 2012