1. SECTION 7 THE MAKING OF A SUPERPOWER- THE USSR AND THE WORLD YOU NEED TO KNOW: RUSSIA’S WAR PREPARATIONS THE NAZI-SOVIET PACT HOW EFFECTIVELY WAS RUSSIA PREPARED FOR WAR? THE STAGES OF RUSSIA’S DEFEAT OF GERMANY THE COST OF WAR WITH GERMANY WHY RUSSIA WON IN WHAT WAYS WAS RUSSIA A SUPERPOWER BY 1953? EXAMPLE EXAM QUESTION: How far was Russia’s victory in the Second World War the major reason for the USSR’s emergence as a superpower? (30 marks)

2. Why did Stalin believe Russia should prepare for war? Since the late 1920’s, the Soviet Union believed that Germany was preparing for war. Concern about war grew with the appointment of Hitler as German Chancellor in 1933 and the agreement of a treaty between Nazi Germany, Italy and Japan.

3. How effectively did Stalin prepare Russia for war? The Soviet government reformed the military, recruited spies and diverted the economy to rearmament. In 1935 military discipline in the Red Army was tightened. The old Tsarist system of discipline and division between officers and men was reintroduced. The Red Army between 1937-8 was purged to make sure all members were loyal to the regime. BUT a great deal of experience and military skill was lost. Russia had a huge network of spies. Communist sympathisers in countries willingly supported the Communist government. BUT Stalin refused to trust the intelligence service and much of the work of intelligence was on the hunt for Trotsky, leaving little capacity to investigate foreign enemies. The Third Five-Year Plan was meant to rearm Russia. BUT there was chaos due to purges in industry. There was no agreed budget for military spending and war production. In spite of the chaos, much was achieved. Six new aircraft factories were built, 24 new factories dealing with explosives. The total number of tanks produced in 1942 was double of 1938. Russian war production figures were better than German war production figures. The Russian economy was more powerful than that of Germany. Russia also had scope to expand military production. (less of it’s national income proportionately was spent on war production).

4. Why did Stalin sign the Nazi- Soviet Pact in 1939? Stalin was prepared to negotiate with Germany (BUT Germany was Russia’s enemy). Hitler in 1925 in his book “Mein Kampf” had proposed invading Russia. Russia in turn had described Nazism was one of the worst regimes of the age. The Nazi- Soviet Pact was agreed in little over 3 hours on 24th August 1939. The Pact (which was published) said that Germany and Russia agreed to respect each others territories. The Pact (privately) divided Europe into two “spheres of interest”. When Hitler invaded Poland, Stalin phoned Hitler to congratulate him. Stalin alone was responsible for the Pact. Why did Stalin make a deal with Hitler? Firstly, there was no alternative. (France and the UK did not seek an agreement with Russia). Stalin may have been delaying war by making a pact with Hitler. (Stalin was aware the Red Army would not be ready for war until 1943). Stalin was also aware that Lenin had taken a similar approach in 1920. Stalin also admired Hitler. He respected his strong leadership. Stalin wanted to regain (and indeed did within a month of signing the treaty) control of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Stalin was aware that Germany would eventually invade Russia. When the Red Army failed to take over Finland, Stalin was extremely concerned. (Stalin’s purges had destroyed the Russian army). Stalin believed the Pact would avoid war with Germany until 1942. Stalin was wrong. Germany invaded Russia in June 1941. Russia was totally unprepared. Despite the disaster, this crisis united the people behind their leader.

5. What were the stages of Russia’s defeat of Germany? In June 1941 Hitler announced Operation Barbarossa- an all out attack on the Soviet Union. In September 1941 Operation Typhoon was launched to capture Moscow. Under fear of invasion, law and order broke down in Moscow. In December a counter- attack was launched that pushed the German army 200km from the centre of Moscow. Hitler launched Operation Blue in June 1942 to capture the city of Stalingrad. It was a big industrial base and important to Russia. The six-month battle was one of the bloodiest in history. At one point during the battle it was estimated that life expectancy for a soldier was less than 24 hours. Over 1.9 million people died during the siege, but still the Russians resisted. Stalin has mismanaged the Russian military. He refused to believe both British and Russian intelligence in the lead up to Stalingrad. Stalin had ignored the advice of Red Army Generals (who he did not trust). The purges and Gosplan had limited war planning. Stalin was determined not to lose Moscow, Leningrad or Stalingrad. The Soviet slogan during the battles was “Not a step back!” The entire resources of the Soviet Union were mobilised into the war. The initial defence of the city of Stalingrad was carried out, in the main, by women volunteers. The Soviet counter-offensive (Operation Uranus) was launched in September 1942. By December 1942 around 2/3 of captured territory was regained. By January 1945 the Red Army entered German territory and sought revenge. There were numerous rapes and murders by the advancing army. By April 1945 4,000 Red Army Tanks, 23,000 artillery and 4,000 aeroplanes had reached the outskirts of Berlin. In May 1945 Germany surrendered.

6. What was the cost of Russia’s involvement? The exact number of deaths is disputed. At least 10% of the population died between 1941 and 1945. Conservative estimates are that 20 million civilians died. (Including those who died in Gulags and of injuries, the figure is more like 30 million). There was great social upheaval. 45% of the population were under German control during the war. Around 20 million Russians fled west at the end of the war. Some population movements were ordered by Stalin. The Kalmyk people were moved from western Russia to Siberia. (Stalin feared that they would collaborate with the Germans). Working conditions deteriorated further during the war. Due to the production of tanks and aircraft there were few tractors. Fields had to be ploughed by hand. Working hours on the land and in industry were increased. Factory shifts lasted from 12-18 hours. Factory workers were also expected (on top of their normal work) to assist on the land during harvest season. Worker discipline was tightened. Being 20 minutes late to work would result in being arrested. Women were also expected to work in the factories and fields and care for their families. There were huge food shortages and hunger. Women were expected to do hard physical labour, such as pulling the plough where there was no horses to be found. Families were separated, due to war work. Many men started second families, who they abandoned at the end of the war.

7. The Soviet Authorities claimed that the Second World War set back the economy by 10 years. When the Germans occupied territories, they took over the industry and agriculture in those areas. Many labourers were being conscripted into the armed forces. This meant economic production dropped in Russia. In 1942 Russia’s industry was producing only 59% of its 1940 output. (This rose to 79% in 1944 due to heroic effort of the people). Grain production was also much lower. Despite efforts, these figures lagged behind pre-war achievements. Living standards dropped. Electricity supplies to the general population stopped and only started again once the war ended. Workers lived on low food rations. Those under siege in places such as Moscow, conditions were much worse. The bread, for example, contained sawdust. Citizens ate birds, rats, their pets, and there were some cases of cannibalism. In June 1941 it was ordered that all industrial equipment that fell into German hands was to be destroyed before the Germans could use it. The Germans did the same in 1943 when they retreated. It is estimated 2/3 of Russian equipment in German occupied territory was destroyed by Germans. The Germans also burned crops, destroyed factories and machinery, kill cattle and blew up bridges. It is estimated that 32,000 factories were destroyed in this way. The Russian victory over Germany represented a heroic achievement for Stalin. (many in the West believed that Germany would overrun Russia by the end of 1942). BUT this miracle had come at a great cost. The economy was shattered The people had suffered greatly. Stalin was now head of an emerging superpower.

8. Why did Russia win? RUSSIA’S ECONOMY: Better prepared than Britain or France. (Due to the first two Five Year Plans). Stalin relocated industry to the east to stop it falling into enemy hands. A high proportion of national income was devoted to the war. The production of armaments doubled 1941-4. Nazi economic planning was not as effective. RUSSIAN HOME FRONT: Russians were fighting for their homeland. The Orthodox Church and traditional nationalism were used to mobilise the people. Defence of the “Motherland” idea. (Stalin realised the people had little desire to fight for the “Soviet system” due to economic hardship.). The citizens of Leningrad endued a 900 day siege, but never surrendered in spite of starvation. The restrictions on the Orthodox church were lifted. MILITARY FACTORS: German tactics were overambitious. The German army found the weather conditions in the Russian winter harsh, the German army was overstretched fighting a war on two fronts. LEND-LEASE: Americans supplied resources to help fight the Nazis to Russia. It helped mainly in the areas of food and transport, but provided little in terms of military support.

9. The Siege of Leningrad

10. The Battle of Stalingrad

11. THE NEW WORLD ORDER By 1946 the war alliance had broken down. Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union and Western Europe and the USA formed two camps of influence. After World War Two it was agreed that neighbouring states to Russia were in Stalin’s “sphere of influence” by Britain and the USA. Communist governments were set up in neighbouring countries. By 1949 an “Eastern Bloc” had emerged. Stalin believed that there was a clear divide between the western capitalist countries and the eastern communist countries. This led to the Cold War. Russia and America were the clear economic forces in the post-war world. Russia’s economy was geared to prepare for possible war with America. The Fourth Five Year Plan was focussed on heavy industry. This was a period of economic growth for Russia. Production exceeded targets. BUT this focus on heavy industry was to the cost of living standards from 1946-51. Hardships of daily life were not addressed and there was a shortage of consumer goods. BUT Russia was in a position to wage war.

12. RUSSIA AS A SUPERPOWER Once Russia had developed a nuclear weapon their status as a superpower was confirmed. They quickly caught up with American rivals. Gosplan diverted resources to the development of nuclear weapons. Spies were used to obtain American and British nuclear secrets. By 1953 Russia had a Hydrogen bomb. Nuclear tests demonstrated Russia’s power. It also led to military stalemate with the USA. By 1953 Russia was an industrialised, urban nation, technologically advanced with industrial specialists. They had fought to victory in World War Two. This meant Stalin’s prestige was immense. BUT this was never matched in terms of consumer goods, there was continual terror, much of the Five Year Plan suffered due to purges. Much of the power of the Soviet Union was built on slave labour.

13. Stalin became increasingly paranoid his later years about “plots” against him. Stalin lying in his coffin, 1953