1. Sociology Sociological Imagination: A term coined by Mills to describe the sociological approach to analysing issues. The link between personal troubles and public issues, using critical thought to examine both sides of an argument/viewpoint. Four point framework (Evan Willis): Historical – how has past influenced the present? Cultural – What influence does culture hold? In what ways has it changed? Structural – How do various institutions affect our lives? Critical – Why are things as they are?

2. Australian Indigenous culture Legally, Aboriginal or Indigenous people are recognised as: – A person of Aboriginal or Torres Straight Islander descent, who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Straight Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he or she lives. “Terra Nullius” – When the British first colonised Australia they did so without seeking the consent of the Indigenous peoples, claiming the land was owned by no-one (Terra Nullius). Under international law, Terra Nullius land could be taken by anyone who could use it productively. Culture – Refers to an entire way of life of a group or society including learned values, ideas, knowledge, rules customs etc. This can be split into two main concepts; Material culture which are PHYSICAL objects passed on to subsequent generations and Non-Material culture which refers to any NON-PHYSICAL creations such as ideas, values, knowledge, beliefs of a society. – Key components of culture are: Values, Symbols, Language, Norms.

3. Government policies Cultural suppression – Occurs when a culture is overpowered and dominated, usually coinciding with the promotion of another culture. This involves deliberate policy or by economic or technological superiority. Protection and Segregation (1837) – Due to ethnocentric view points (primitive, savage race), the assumption that Australian Indigenous people needed to be protected was formed. This involved the separation into missions and government reserves. Assimilation (1951) – Indigenous peoples “not of full blood” should be absorbed into the wider population in the aim of the gradual disappearance of the culture & identity. Integration (1965) – A short lived policy based on the premise that acknowledged that Australian Indigenous peoples had their own culture, which needed to be “westernised.” Reconciliation (Current) – Refers to “coming together,” aims to achieve justice, recognition and healing and for all Australians to move forward with a better understanding of the past. This is split into two subcategories; Symbolic reconciliation which is focussed on the social justice component of reconciliation, recognising historical injustices. (e.g. apology, education programs) and Practical Reconciliation which involves a focus on providing services to address the inequalities (e.g. funding for ‘Close the Gap’)

4. Case Study Lake Tyers Aboriginal Trust – “Bungyarnda” – Indigenous community in the East Gippsland region of Vic. – populated by Gunai/Kurnai Indigenous tribes, have had an ongoing connection with the land. – In 1970 they were handed the land under a perpetual license after a 7 year case and won the rights to self-govern (Land Rights Act). It is now also held under the Native Title Act (1993 – follow on from the Mabo case). – Government begun enforcing things on the community and putting plans in place (housing and sewerage through sensitive/sacred areas – IMPT. in a community with such a strong land connection) without discussing with the elders/leaders of the community, leading to a break down in communication and the eventual 2011 blockade held by the elders in protest against current administration arrangements over the site. The government then retaliated with the removal of teachers, health professionals etc. from the area for the own safety.

5. Ethnicities Race – Biologically ascribed status. Generally a social construct used to stereotype as it’s determined by physical characteristics. Ethnicity – Culture/social group characterised by a distinctive way of life with set customary values. Refers to cultural identity and how a person is socialised and often share a common cultural heritage. The ‘other’ – The labelling of a group of people who are seen as ‘outsiders’ by the dominant culture. It refers to the experience of exclusion felt by those considered to be outside of centre societal values and beliefs. Immigration – The movement of people into a country on a permanent basis.

6. Immigration Migrant – A migrant is a person who has left his or her country of origin voluntarily to seek out a better life for a range of personal/economic reasons. Refugee – A person who is outside their own country and is unable to unwilling to return due to a well-founded fear of being persecuted because of their race, religion, nationality, etc. Asylum-seeker – A person who has fled their own country and applies to the government of another country for protection as a refugee. This term applies whether or not they are officially determined to be refugees. The MIGRATION program – Accepts skilled migrants to live in Australia, these are people who have a profession or trade that could be of benefit to the Australian society. These people may be accepted under three streams: skill, family and special eligibility. The HUMANITARIAN program – Offers resettlement to refugees and to “others in humanitarian need” who have suffered discrimination resulting in serious violations of their human rights. The offshore component offers resettlement to people outside Australia who are in need of assistance. These people are recognised as ‘refugees’ or ‘special humanitarian entrants’ – they have often spent many years in refugee camps. The onshore component offers protection to people who are already in Australia when they apply. (e.g. arrive by boat)

7. Theories of Ethnicities STUART HALL – Ethnic Hybridity is a concept used to describe the experience of people who have multiple ethnic identities (e.g. Greek-Australian children who have one set of cultural experiences within their homes and local communities and an entirely different identity within their schools). This reflects the idea that the concept of ethnicity is both temporary and evolving. HOMI BHABHA – Identifies the shift from identification with one culture until the complete assimilation into another, resulting in enclaves, New cultures form resulting in a mixture of two or more influences – ‘caught-between-cultures’. (predominantly seen in 2 nd Generation Migrants.)

8. Comparative Diversity Table 3.02 p. 62 A report released by the Australia Bureau of Statistics (ABS) in 2010 shows Australia’s ethnic diversity in comparison to other developed countries

9. Case Study Somali-Australian ethnic community: Background – Prior to it’s independence in 1960, the land inhabited by the Somali people was divided between the French, British and the Italians. This country has become unstable after years of violent civil conflict. The UN attempted at achieving peace in Somalia between 1993 and 1995 but was unsuccessful. – One of the largest refugee-producing countries for over 20 years, with large proportions of female and child refugees (Refugee Health Research Centre). Many come as refugees under the Humanitarian program How they identify – Many Somali-Australians continue their adherence to a clan structure. Their society is shaped by a membership of clan-families which are subdivided into clans and many sub-clans. The family is considered the primary social group for Somali-Australians and cultural identity is largely based on ancestry. Families are traditionally large but division during the migration process separates many members. – The majority of Somalis are Muslims with Islam being their official religion. The predominant first language is Somali, which uses the Roman Alphabet. Arabic is a common second language. The father is considered to be the bread winner and head of the family and the mother tends to focus on maintaining the home. Although it is seen to be patriarchal, it is also generally egalitarian in that decisions are made though consensus and discussions. – Islamic religion shapes many aspects of the culture, for example women being required to cover up in public. Challenges experienced by the group – Some children receive no education in their birth country posing a significant challenge when adjusting to school in Australia. Many also have the additional responsibility of sending money to family members remaining in Somalia. Often they continue to suffer emotional and psychological impacts of living in a war- torn country. Unemployment is prevalent as many didn’t receive an education and very few can speak English.

10. Communities A group of people who share social relationships through shared interests & beliefs, identifying features, typical behaviours and shared purposes (SITS). Inclusive/Exclusive Maintained/Weaken/Strengthen

11. Theories of Communities TONNIES – New, industrialised cities differ from life in rural villages. Introduced two concepts; Gemeinschaft (community level) refers to pre- industrialised agrarian communities, predominantly tied by kinship & tradition, and Gesellschaft (society level) which refers to urban communities, based around on informal and impersonal relationships DURKHEIM – Expanded on Tonnies’ theories of community – suggesting that they reflect two types of “solidarity”. These are; mechanical solidarity (traditional), which refers to people united through moral beliefs, similar in work connections etc. (this is like Gemeinschaft) and organic solidarity (modern societies), this is a result of urbanisation and works through division of labour & independence, offering more personal choice, tolerance and privacy than found in traditional communities.

12. Theories influencing communities CASTELLS’ NETWORK SOCIETY – Castells’ theory explores how the use of ICT in industrialised cities has improved social networks and connections between people. This theory outlines that the internet is a communications technology which reinforces and intensifies existing social patterns rather than posing a threat to community. – Two types of ICT communities; Virtual communities which refer to social networks created through the use of IT. IMVU, Second life etc. are examples of this; Online communities refer to any collection of people who communicate online. – These communities create many advantages such as global connections, reducing isolation and finding like-minded people, but also poses threats in instances such as identity theft, online predators, bullying etc.

13. Sense of Community Focuses on the experience of community rather than it’s structure form or physical features. (e.g. feeling of belonging/connection) – Shared values and beliefs – Identifying features – Typical behaviours – Shared interest and purpose

14. Maintaining, Strengthening and Weakening a sense of Community Roland L Warren (MESSS) – Mutual Support – Economic Welfare – Socialisation – Social Participation – Social Control

15. Changes that Maintain, Strengthen and Weaken a sense of Community – Political Changes – Economic Changes – Environmental Changes – Technological Changes – Social Changes

16. Social Movements An organised activity that encourages or discourages social change – This is done through the alteration of culture and social institutions over time, reflected in social behaviour. – Methods of encouraging change: Protests, Coordinated demands, Publicity and Civil Disobedience. – Relative Deprivation Theory Movements that evolve as a result due to a group of people feelings deprived of what they consider necessary for their well- being/happiness when compared to others in society. – Nature of social movements: Alternative: Specific individuals, Limited change (e.g. Tecoma 8) Reformative: Everyone, Limited change Redemptive: Specific individuals, Radical change Revolutionary: Everyone, Radical change

17. New Social Movements New Social Movements (NSM) theory refers to post-industrial social movements from the late 1960s onwards that place greater emphasis on alteration of social and cultural values, signalling a departure from conventional political movements. – Old social movements generally focussed on economic change – usually class based and managed by centralised bureaucratic organisations. – Characteristics: Informal network of interactions, a sense of collective identity and a sense of opposition or conflict with mainstream politics concerning the need for social change. – Values include: Active Participation, Personal Development, Emotional Openness and a Collective Sense of Responsibility. – There are two types these are: Defensive NSMs which DEFEND natural or social environments considered to be threatened by industrialisation. Offensive NSMs which aim to extend the social rights of an individual who have been denied power or identity. – NSMs utilise ICT and are more likely to involve young people from a range of social classes.

18. Stages in the life cycle of Social movements Figure 4.03: pg. 146

19. Power WEBER – The ability to achieve desired ends despite resistance from others. Individuals with power find it easier to create social change compared to those without power (more power = greater access to resources) – The use of power by those seen as having the right to it is considered legitimate power. (Political parties etc.) – Power that requires the use of coercion (threat of force) to compliance is known as illegitimate power.

20. Case study No McDonalds in the Dandenong Ranges (Tecoma 8) – Alternative social movement – limited change to a specific group of individuals, encouraging change in attitudes and behaviours. – Small town in the Dandenong ranges – close knit & traditional values. In 2011 a planning permit for a McDonalds was put forward and the community voted in opposition to this (9 in 10 people said NO). VCAT then overturned the ruling against it and begun building. From this, the NO McDonalds in the Dandenon Ranges social movement evolved. In a village with just over 2,000 residents, roughly 1,700 signed the original petition. This has now grown to over 94,000 signatures on the petition they took to Chicago – Example of an NSM due to it’s: extensive use of ICT (youtube videos, “because” video on youtube, facebook page, burgeroff.org), informal network of inteactions (Facebook to alert each other of media attention etc.), Collective identity (passionate, community, local identity, “red tshirts”), in opposition to mainstream politics – want change. – Engaged in Protests, (Fedsquare, on the site, Les Miserables sing-a-long flashmob – 57,000+ views – 04/11/2013), Letter writing and petitions to McDonald’s HQ in Chicago, these all create hype and make the movement gain momentum. – Currently in the bureaucratisation stage, strategy is being carried out, formal organisations (change.org is aiding the movement) and paid/expereienced staff are leading towards the goals of the movement. – NOT relitive deprivation – preserve what they have as they feel it’s special to their town. (Defensive NSM – protect both natural and social environments PEETS.)

21. Case Study - Environmental Green peace (Asia Pacific) – Reformative, social/environmental movement. It limits its goal for social change to particular issues (e.g. saving whales) and has it’s focus on all people. – Came into being as part of an international organisation founded in Vancouver in 1971 protesting against nuclear testing. It has organisations in more that 41 countries and 2.65 million supporters world wide. – “Independent campaigning organisation which uses non-violent creative confrontation to expose global environmental problems and to force solutions which are essential to a green and peaceful future.” (Greenpeace Asia Pacific 2011) – Example of an NSM due to it’s: network of activists, shared value of non- violence, independent core values (doesn’t accept money from government/political parties), organisations in 41 countries, use of ICT. – Currently in the bureaucratisation stage, it has a set of rules and procedures, employs staff and has a formal leadership structure. – Greenpeace Asia Pacific’s actions have resulted in considerable social change. (e.g. clean energy, saving the oceans, ancient forests)