1. Organizational Behavior Managing People and Organization
Chapter 13 Contemporary Views of Leadership in Organizations
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2. Chapter Learning Objectives After studying this chapter you should be able to:
1. Identify and describe contemporary situational theories of leadership.
2. Discuss leadership through the eyes of followers.
3. Identify and describe alternatives to leadership.
4. Describe the changing nature of leadership.
5. Identify and discuss emerging issues in leadership.
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3. Contemporary Situational Theories
LPC, path-goal, and Vroom’s decision tree redirected the study of leadership. Other situational theories have been developed and changes and refinements to the original models continue.
A. The Leader-Member Exchange Model. Conceived by George Graen and Fred Dansereau, this model stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates. Each superior-subordinate pair is referred to as a vertical dyad (refer to Figure 13.1). The in-group often receives special duties requiring more responsibility and autonomy. Subordinates who are not a part of this group are called the out-group, and they receive less of the supervisor’s time and attention.
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4. The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model
FIGURE 13.1
The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model
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5. (cont’d)
B. The Hersey and Blanchard Model. This model of leadership identifies different combinations of leadership presumed to work best with different levels of organizational maturity, or readiness, on the part of followers. Figure 13.2 shows the basic model.
C. Refinements and Revisions of Other Theories. The three dominant situational theories continue to undergo refinements and revisions.
1. Stress has been added to LPC theory as a major factor in situational favorableness.
2. Path-goal theory now has four forms of leader behavior, as discussed in Chapter 12.
3. Vroom’s decision tree, as presented in Chapter 12, is currently in its third published version.
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6. The Hersey and Blanchard Theory of Leadership
FIGURE 13.2
The Hersey and Blanchard Theory of Leadership
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7. Leadership Through the Eyes of Followers
The three primary approaches to leadership through the eyes of followers are transformational leadership, charismatic leadership, and attributions of leadership.
A. Transformational Leadership. This relatively new approach focuses on the basic distinction between leading for change and leading for stability.
1. Transformational leadership is the set of abilities that allow the leader to recognize the need for change, to create a vision to direct that change, and to execute the change effectively.
2. Transactional leadership is the set of leader activities that involve assigning work, evaluating performance, and making decisions.
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8. (cont’d)
B. Charismatic Leadership. The concept of charismatic leadership assumes that charisma is an individual characteristic of the leader—a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance. A supervisor who is highly charismatic may be more influential regarding subordinate behavior than a supervisor lacking charisma. According to Robert House.
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9. (cont’d) The following characteristics contribute to charisma:
1. The followers trust the correctness of the leader’s beliefs.
2. The followers’ beliefs are similar to the leader’s beliefs.
3. The followers accept the leader unquestioningly.
4. The followers feel affection for the leader.
5. The followers obey the leader willingly.
6. The followers have an emotional involvement in the organizational mission.
7. The followers have heightened performance goals.
8. The followers believe they can contribute to the success of the group’s mission.
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10. The Charismatic Leader
FIGURE 13.3
The Charismatic Leader
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11. (cont’d)
C. Attribution of Leadership. The attribution perspective (See Chapter 3) holds that when behaviors are observed in a context associated with leadership, others may attribute varying levels of leadership or power to the person displaying those behaviors.
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12. Alternatives to Leadership
In some cases, circumstances may exist that render leadership unnecessary.
A. Leadership Substitutes. Can leadership be irrelevant? An interesting perspective that suggests that in some cases leadership may not be necessary is called the leadership substitutes approach.
B. Leadership Neutralizers. Group norms, cohesiveness, job elements, and organizational factors can neutralize leadership.
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13. Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership
Table 13.1
Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership
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14. The Changing Nature of Leadership
Among the recent changes in leadership that managers should recognize are the increasing role of leaders as coaches and gender and cross-cultural patterns of leader behavior.
A. Leaders as Coaches. The role of leader changes as more organizations become less hierarchical and discard the old-fashioned command-and-control mentality in favor of the team approach where the leader becomes a coach rather than overseer. Mentor the role of helping a less- experienced person learn the ropes and to better prepare him or herself to advance within the organization.
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15. (cont’d)
B. Gender and Leadership. Do women and men tend to lead differently? In contrast to original stereotypes, research indicates that female leaders are not necessarily more nurturing or supportive than are male leaders, nor are men systematically more harsh, controlling, or task focused. The one difference that emerges is that women tend to be more democratic in making decisions, men more autocratic. C. Cross-Cultural Leadership. Culture is used here as a broad concept encompassing both international differences and diversity-based differences within one culture. As leaders themselves become more diverse it may be necessary to reassess the applicability of current leadership theories and models. Religion is a potential issue in leadership. A Jewish or Christian leader, leading a group with Islamist members may face complex issues, and those issues exist if roles are reversed.
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16. (cont’d)
D. International Leadership and Project GLOBE. Cross- cultural issues occur in international contexts. Project GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Research Project) identified leader behaviors that can be observed and assessed across cultures. Findings suggest that within any cultural cluster, followers react similarly to various leader behaviors. 1. Employees in Nordic Europe want leaders to inspire and involve others in decision making. Charismatic/value-based and participative leadership are important. 2. In Southern Asia, employees want leaders to be collaborative, sensitive to needs, and concerned with status and face saving. Self-protective and charismatic/value-based leadership are most important.
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17. Emerging Issues in Leadership
Three emerging concepts in leadership are strategic leadership, ethical leadership, and virtual leadership.
A. Strategic Leadership we define as the capability to understand the complexities of both the organization and its environment and to lead change in the organization so as to achieve and maintain a superior alignment between the organization and its environment. It may be thought of as an extension of the transformational leadership role, with an even greater emphasis on the leader’s ability to think and function strategically.
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18. (cont’d)
B. Ethical Leadership. In the wake of corporate scandals at firms like Enron, Boeing, and WorldCom, top managers are being called upon to maintain high ethical standards in their own behavior as well as that of others in their organizations. Closer scrutiny of top managers’ backgrounds and behaviors and emerging pressures for stronger corporate governance models are all becoming more common. C. Virtual Leadership involves leaders and their employees working while physically separated with little or no opportunity for personal interaction. Telecommuting is one situation requiring at least some degree of virtual leadership. Telephone and communication help, but perhaps most important for success is the careful cultivation of relationships with employees that go beyond words on a computer screen. Personal words in an (whenever appropriate) would be an example.
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19. Organizational Behavior in Action
After reading the chapter:
What behavior do you most readily identify as “leadership”?
What could substitute for a professor’s leadership in the classroom? (Think lower tuition !!!)
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20. END Of The CHAPTER
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