1. META-ETHICS: NON-COGNITIVISM A2 Ethics

2. This week’s aims To explain and evaluate non-cognitivism To understand the differences between emotivism and prescriptivismemotivismprescriptivism To explain and evaluate emotivism and prescriptivism

3. Key theories Meta-Ethics Cognitivism NaturalismIntuitionism Non- Cognitivism EmotivismPrescriptivism

4. Non-cognitivism Non-cognitivism claims that ethical language does not try to describe the world and cannot be true or false. It does not express beliefs, but some other, non-cognitive mental state. Different non-cognitivist theories disagree on exactly what this mental state is, but it is usually an attitude or feeling. Booklets, p.76

5. Emotivism Ayer and Hume Moral statements express our emotions ‘Stealing is wrong’ just means ‘I disapprove of stealing.’ ‘Boo-Hurrah’ theory of ethics Moral statements are intended to guide actions and convey attitudes Moral judgements do not express any kind of truth or falsehood, because they are not cognitive There are no moral truths Ethical statements cannot be tested by sense experience, so they are factually meaningless Not analytic or synthetic

6. Stevenson’s emotivism, p.77-78 Read the section on Stevenson’s emotivism Explain his three key points using only pictures and symbols

7. Stevenson’s emotivism, p.77-78 Stevenson develops the distinction between beliefs and desires. Beliefs can be true or false, but desires can’t be. Stevenson argues that moral attitudes are about desires, not beliefs, and are therefore non-cognitive. Stevenson develops the distinction between the descriptive and emotive meanings of words. Many moral terms (‘steal’, ‘honesty’, ‘respect’) have both descriptive and emotive meanings. The term ‘honest’ isn’t just a description; it also has an emotive meaning of approval. Stevenson analyses emotive meaning by connecting meaning to use. The purpose of moral judgements is not to state facts, but to influence how we behave through expressions of approval and disapproval. Moral terms are ‘dynamic’, and the main purpose of making moral judgements is to ‘create an influence’.

8. Advantage of emotivism One advantage of this theory is that it easily explains how and why it is that moral judgements motivate us. If moral language were just descriptive, stating how things are, why would that get us to act in certain ways? We need to care. And what we care about is captured in our attitudes to the world. Emotivism connects caring, approving, disapproving, with the very meaning of ethical words.

9. Objections to emotivism, p.78 Read the section on objections to emotivism and then answer the following questions: 1. How many objections to emotivism can you identify? What are they? 2. What responses can emotivism make to the objections?

10. Prescriptivism R. M. Hare (1919-2002) Ethical language is prescriptive ‘You ought to do this’ means that everyone should do the same in similar situations Some moral judgements are imperatives Other moral judgements are value judgements We use the word ‘good’ when we want to commend something to someone We must be willing to ‘universalise’ our moral judgements. Not to do so is logically contradictory.

11. Booklets, p.79-80 Explain Hare’s key points using only pictures and symbols

12. Objections to prescriptivism, p.80 Read the section on objections to prescriptivism and then answer the following questions: 1. How many objections to prescriptivism can you identify? What are they? 2. What responses can prescriptivism make to the objections?

13. Evaluation Critically evaluate the claim that ethical language is merely an expression of opinion (35 marks) ForAgainst

14. Homework To what extent is ethical language meaningful? (35)