1. The Geneva Conventions In 1864, several states created an international agreement that regulated acceptable behavior during war and armed conflicts. Since then, the Geneva Conventions have been amended in 1906, 1929, and 1949 as the nature of war and warfare has changed. The agreements prohibit torture, rape, genocide, mutilation, slavery, and other crimes against humanity. The conventions also state that prisoners of war must be treated humanely and that civilians may not be used as hostages.

2. Civil War A civil war is a war fought within a single country between or among different groups of citizens who want to control the government and do not recognize another group’s right to rule. Civil wars are almost always total wars because each side feels compelled to destroy the enemy’s political support base. Spanish Civil War

3. Guerilla A guerrilla war is a war in which one or both combatants use small, lightly armed militia units rather than professional, organized armies. Guerrilla fighters usually seek to topple their government, often enjoying the support of the people. These wars are often very long but also tend to be successful for the insurgents.

4. Guerrillas Versus Terrorists Although guerrillas have been known to practice terrorism, guerrillas are not terrorists. Guerrillas fight against their governments, particularly against the military, in order to provoke a regime change. Terrorists, in contrast, target civilians and members of the military in order to create a social and political crisis of international proportions. Those fighting a guerrilla group might label their opponents terrorists, and some terrorists may see themselves as guerrillas.

5. Total war A total war is a war in which combatants use every resource available to destroy the social fabric of the enemy. Total wars are highly destructive and are characterized by mass civilian casualties because winning a total war often requires combatants to break the people’s will to continue fighting. World Wars I and II were total wars, marked by the complete destruction of the civilian economy and society in many countries, including France, Germany, the Soviet Union, Italy, Great Britain, and Japan.

6. Limited war A limited war is a war fought primarily between professional armies to achieve specific political objectives without causing widespread destruction. Although the total of civilian casualties may be high, combatants do not seek to completely destroy the enemy’s social and economic frameworks. The Persian Gulf War of 1990–1991 was a limited war in which the United States and its allies forcibly removed Iraqi troops from Kuwait.

7. Causes of WWI - MANIA M ilitarism A lliances N ationalism I mperialism A ssassination

8. M ilitarism When a nation’s armed forces come to dominate a country’s national policy It is also a glorification of the military and war itself 1910-1914 Increase in Defense Expenditures France10% Britain13% Russia39% Germany73%

10. N ationalism Pride and patriotism in one’s nation In terms of WWI, nationalism became aggressive and subsequently (because of this) a major cause of international tension Independent nations desired dominance and prestige and as these powers tried to dominate each other in Europe, their rivalries may be regarded as one of the causes of the First World War

11. I mperialism Domination by one country over the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or region Due to the Industrial Revolution of the 1800s, some European nations had a large portion of the world under their control

12. Imperialism and Colonial Rivalries After 1870, the European nations began to acquire colonies in Asia, Africa and the Pacific Colonial rivalry led to: – strained relations among the European powers. In Africa, all the European powers except Austria and Russia had colonies there. Thus there were many clashes among France, Britain, Germany and Italy. – the formation and strengthening of alliances and ententes. (indirectly) – an intensification of the arms race. – much hostility among the powers.

13. A ssassination The “spark” that started WWI On June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austria Hungarian Throne was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist who believed that Bosnia should belong to Serbia

14. The Point of No Return Austria blamed Serbia for Ferdinand’s death and declared war on Serbia. Germany pledged their support for Austria - Hungary. Russia pledged their support for Serbia.

15. Germany declares war on Russia France pledges their support for Russia Germany declares war on France Germany invades Belgium on the way to France Great Britain supports Belgium and declares war on Germany

16.  Treaty of Versailles  Rise of Italian fascism  Rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party  Great Depression  Japanese expansionism  Anti-communism  Appeasement  Militarism  Nationalism  U.S. isolationism  Maps

17. Treaty of Versailles After Germany lost WWI, the winning nations drafted a treaty to address issues such as territorial adjustments, reparations, armament restrictions, war guilt and the League of Nations. The treaty punished Germany and left bitter feelings. Germany was forced to accept all the blame for the war and pay millions in reparations to Britain and France. Italy was disappointed that it was denied territory promised by Britain and France. U.S. President Wilson French Prime Minister Clemenceau Italian Prime Minister Orlando British Prime Minister George 1914 1919 “Big Four”

18. The Rise of Fascism in Italy Fascism is a totalitarian form of government which: Glorifies the state Has one leader and one party All aspects of society are controlled by the government No opposition or protests are tolerated Propaganda and censorship are widely practiced Benito Mussolini came to power in 1922 and helped found the political ideology of fascism. He sided with the Axis powers in 1940.

19. In Germany, depression, unemployment and hard times led to a dramatic increase in votes for Hitler and the Nazi Party. Election dateVotes in millions Share May 20, 19280.812.6% September 14, 19306.4118.3% July 31, 193213.7537.3% November 6, 193211.7433.1% March 5, 193317.2843.9% Voting for Hitler’s party increased as unemployment rates rose

20. Worldwide Economic Depression After WWI many European economies were unstable. The boom in the U.S. throughout the 1920s helped sustain worldwide trade. The 1929 stock market crash in the U.S. and the resulting Great Depression spread throughout the world. U.S. restrictive tariff policies worsened the depression. As economies plummeted and unemployment rose, many people turned to powerful leaders and governments who promised success through military buildup and the conquest of territory. German breadlines Japanese children eating radish roots during famine

21. Anti-Communism Under communism, all means of production are controlled by the government, as are property, the media, and all other aspects of society. The 1930s saw the rise of many totalitarian regimes; but most people chose fascism over communism. Hitler exploited people’s fear of a communist takeover in Germany to rise to power in 1933. A Battle for Germany: Nazi anti-communist book from 1933

22. Appeasement Appeasement is the act of giving in to an enemy’s demands in hopes of avoiding further conflict. In 1938, Hitler demanded that Czechoslovakia cede the Sudetenland to Germany. He claimed that the German population living there was being mistreated. The British and French prime ministers agreed to Hitler’s demands without consulting Czechoslovakian leaders, in the hopes that this would avoid a war in Europe.

23. Militarism The glorification of war, in which a nation strengthens its military and stockpiles weapons in preparation for war. An important aspect of militarism is that the glorification of war is incorporated into all levels of society, including education of the nation’s youth. Militaristic societies have existed throughout human history. Ancient Sparta is an example of a militaristic society Hitler Youth group

24. Nationalism  Nationalism is the belief in the superiority of one’s own nation over all others.  In the extreme, it can lead to major conflicts between nations.  Hitler, Mussolini, and Japan’s Tojo each touted their nation’s ability to dominate all others in the years leading up to WWII. Nazi flag, Italian fascist logo, Japanese flag

25. American Isolationism The failure of peace efforts such as the Kellogg Briand Treaty during the 1920s disillusioned many Americans about international involvement. The U.S. was in a major depression throughout the 1930s and was mostly concerned with its own problems. Conflict in Europe seemed distant, and the U.S. tried to remain neutral. This policy weakened the European democracies. The Nye Committee held congressional hearings in the mid-1930s, concluding that the U.S. was tricked into entering WWI by arms manufacturers and Allied propaganda.

26. Historical debate of Japan’s responsibility Japan as aggressorJapan as imperial power Japan planned the war from 1930’s Japan’s willingness to negotiate was a plan to keep enemy off guard Aggressor- aim to conquer Asia Japanese declaration of war blamed US European style imperialism Japan didn’t plan for war, just took too many risks Japan was creating a sphere of influence (like US did in Latin America) Japan fought a defensive war- triggered by US embargoes. They had to act

27. Immediate cause of war in Pacific US wants Japan out of China 1940 US bans exports of scrap iron to Japan Japan must import raw materials to sustain war (heavily dependent on US) Tripartite Pact Germany, Italy, Japan- “New order”, come to defense US gives loans to China, political parties eliminated in Japan Japan divided Attack USSR or South-east Asia? (Germany attacks USSR, so they go south) Leads to US, Britain, Netherlands embargo Japan will run out of oil= Pearl Harbor

28. The Spanish Civil War 1936-1939

29. The Spanish Civil War The two sides were: – The Nationalists (a loose coalition of right wing groups, including Army high command, the Church, the landowners, monarchists, and the Falange (fascist party) – The Republicans (looser coalition or left wing groups, including socialists, trade unionists, communists, anarchists and moderate liberals)

30. The Causes of the War Profound cause: long period of decline since the great days of he Spanish Empire Spain had made little progress, lost her empire, and fallen behind in the industrialization process Deep division in Spanish society – Landowners vs. Peasants

31. The Causes of the War Church vs. Anti-Clerical movements: The Church had enormous power in Spain and was opposed to social reform, this led to groups that sought to reduce the Church’s influence

32. The Causes of the War Conservatives vs. Liberals There was a lack of a political middle, and extremists elements were increasingly popular Massive divisions between countryside and towns

33. The Causes of the War The Spanish army had a tradition of interfering in politics Long standing tradition of violence in Spanish politics, and democracy had never really been established (therefore parties tried to reserve election results through violence)

34. The Causes of the War There was a desire for autonomy in several regions of Spain. Conservatives saw this as a threat to Spain Anarchism was a powerful force in Spain Army concern at the possibility of a communist takeover

35. The Causes of the War The weakness of the Government of the Second Republic (1930-1936), its failure to carry out reforms, and to act against those that were plotting against the Republic It also failed to maintain law and order The assassination of the right wing leader Calvo Sotelo in July 1936

36. The Main Characteristics of the Spanish Civil War The conflict was extremely brutal There was widespread foreign intervention (due to the conflict -- seen as a struggle between right and left) Nationalists received support from Germany and Italy Republicans obtained aid from USSR and occasionally from France, as well as foreign volunteers and the International Brigades

37. The Main Characteristics of the Spanish Civil War It has been characterized as an ideological war The loose coalitions developed into strongly idealistic as excesses polarized opinion The war was never clear cut Only the ideological divide between foreign supporters was clear – USSR vs. Germany & Italy

38. The Main Characteristics of the Spanish Civil War It was seen as a ‘curtain raiser’ for WWII First major use of air power Bombing of civilian targets Formations of armored vehicles (to predict Hitler’s Blitzkrieg) It is claimed that it was a war between professional soldiers and armed workers (although gradually order and discipline was instituted amongst the Republicans

39. The Main Characteristics of the Spanish Civil War This war saw the use of propaganda to overcome resistance and terrify population It brought profound social changes in its wake (especially in Republican held areas)

40. The Effects of the War Tremendous loss if life (executions continued after the victory of the nationalists) Material losses were great (this was important since Spain had been backward before the war already -- the Republicans sent all the gold reserves to the USSR for safekeeping

41. The Effects of the War Franco’s regime marked the end of democracy for the next 40 years Agriculture remained backward and the landowners in control The Church became more powerful (in return for support for Franco’s regime)

42. The Effects of the War Regionalism was suppressed, and the state highly centralized Censorship was introduced No attempts at reconciliation, reconstruction Cultural life suffered due to the authoritarianism of Franco High degree of state control led to corruption

43. The Effects of the War Franco’s foreign supporters wanted compensation Franco had to provide Germany with much needed resources Spain became diplomatically isolated

44. The reality of the Corporate State was the Fascists sides with employers and this system did little to represent the interests of the workers This system was effectively only a disguise for exploitation of labour

45. Propaganda was used to claim successes, but remained propaganda Successes included improvements in public transport, success in the campaign against the Mafia… The one major success was the ending of the conflict between State and Church (the establishment of the Vatican as an independent state)

46. Algerian War 1954-1962 Historical Background: 1830: France conquers Algeria (Empire, Raw Materials) 1830-1870: Colonization – French Populate Algeria – French Political Control over Algerian Majority (Mélange) 1870-1940: Slow But Minimal Assimilation – Many Muslims Receive French Education/Citizenship – Many Serve France in WWI (Exposed to Pan-Arab Movement) – Demand Changes, But Ignored

47. Historical Background World War II – France Conquered; Free France Fights Under De Gaulle – Algerians Offer Assistance, But Demand Full Citizenship Following War – Impossible for French to Comply – Would Make them A Minority in Their Own Territory (Israeli/Palestinian Parallel) Post War – French Seek to Reclaim Prestige by Reasserting Colonial Control – Indochina Resists (1946-1954) – Algerian Nationalists, Including FLN, Take Note of Vietnam and Press for Independence

48. FLN Strategy Did Not Want to Alienate Algerian Moderates (Elites and General Population), But Convince Them of Righteousness Wanted to Frighten and Impress French Government & European Population in Algeria, But Not Elicit Crushing Backlash Wanted to Impress Arab States, But Not Be So Violent and Random As to Make Aid Politically Infeasible Due to International Costs In the End, The Tactical Operations of The Terrorist Campaign Eventually Satisfied the Most Important of These Strategic Objectives, But Not Without a Great Deal of Trial and Error and Numerous Nuanced Changes in Strategic Approach

49. The French Response To The FLN French Strategy and Goals: Convince Algerians and Metropolitan French That French Rule in Algeria is Advantageous Convince French-Algerian Government That Rule From Paris is Advantageous Convince Algerian Nationalists That French Rule is Advantageous, or Eliminate Them Convince International Audiences That French Rule in Algeria is Better for Algeria Than Algerian Rule French Algeria – Dualist Society: Settlers – White, Urban, White-Collar Entrepreneurs Algerians: African/Arab, Rural, Laborers

50. The French Response Tension Between French Gov’t (Paris) and French Settlers in Algiers Culminates in Military Leadership in Algiers in May 1958 (Massu as Gov.-Gen.) – Treasonous De Gaulle Reassumes Power in Paris (Collapse of 4th Republic): Wants to Reassert Parisian Control Over Algeria, But Proposes Algerian Self-Determination – FLN, Almost Defeated, Sees This as Surrender Massu Recalled as Governor-General in 1960; Settlers Forcibly Take Over Government in Algiers Bedlam Turns Met France Entirely Against French Algerians (Manifesto of 121) – Material Support for FLN

51. The French Response 1960-61: De Gaulle Intensifies Campaign for Separate Algeria – Army Radicals Turn Against Him in Attempted Coup (April 1961) Putsch Fails; Army Loses Willingness to Maintain Control Over Algeria – War Essentially Over More Radical Algerian Group (OAS) Begins Terrorist Attacks Against French Algerians AND FLN – Does Not Impact FLN, But Forces French Citizens To Leave Algeria Once Conflict Over Ceasefire in March 1962 Independence in July 1962