2. Chapter 3 Morphology Cao Ning Cao Ning 2007 Longdong University

3. To get a general idea of some features of word ； To understand word-formation processes To get a general idea of morphology and morphemes; To understand morphological description. Aims

4. Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is thus the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words. Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is thus the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words. Basic Theories of Morphology

5. The study of structure or form and the features comprised in the form and structure of an organism or any of its parts, in which a definite behavioral approach is employed and a specific methodology is used. The study of structure or form and the features comprised in the form and structure of an organism or any of its parts, in which a definite behavioral approach is employed and a specific methodology is used. —John Warfield —John Warfield

6. What is Word? Lexicon-----Vocanbulary----Word Lexicon in linguistics refers to vocabulary contrasted with grammar. Vocabulary is the total number of words that make up a language.

7. a. Word is the smallest meaningful unit in the language which can be used independently. ( 戚雨村， 1999) b. Word is the unit that unifies the sound, sense and grammar. It is the basic structural unit of a sentence. ( 陆国强， 1983) c. Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. ( 胡壮麟 ) What is Word?

8. Every word has a fixed sound form and a certain meaning. In other words, a word has two aspects: the external aspect (sound), the internal aspect (meaning). A word is a unity of sound and meaning. A word is a fundamental structure unit of a sentence. The relation between the meaning of a word and its sound is arbitrary or conventional.

9. What is Word? WORD is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is, perhaps, a bit vague, as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It follows that it is hard to define “word” in the scientific sense. This definition is, perhaps, a bit vague, as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It follows that it is hard to define “word” in the scientific sense. Nevertheless, it is agreed that three senses are involved in defining “word “.

10. Three Senses of “Word” WORD may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks. (A physically definable unit) WORD is the common factor underlying a set of forms, a unit of vocabulary, a lexical item, or a lexeme.( the common factor underlying a set of forms) WORD is a comparably abstract unit to be set up to show how words work in the grammar of a language.( a grammatical unit)

11. Identification of Words Stability Words are the most stable of all linguistics units, that is the constituent parts of a complex word have potential for rearrangement. Words are the most stable of all linguistics units, that is the constituent parts of a complex word have potential for rearrangement. Relative uninterruptibility By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not to be inserted a word even when there are several parts. By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not to be inserted a word even when there are several parts.

12. Identification of Words A minimum free form This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as the maximum free form and word the minimum free form. Word is the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance. This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as the maximum free form and word the minimum free form. Word is the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.

13. Classification of Words Variable and invariable words Words can be classified according to their variability. Variable words refer to those having different inflections, whereas invariable words refer to those having no inflective forms, e.g. Words can be classified according to their variability. Variable words refer to those having different inflections, whereas invariable words refer to those having no inflective forms, e.g. care look before care look before careful looks rarely careful looks rarely careless looking always careless looking always carefulness looked for carefulness looked for carelessness since carelessness since

14. Classification of Words Grammatical words and lexical words In terms of meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into grammatical words and lexical words. Grammatical words are those express grammatical meaning, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. These words serve to link different parts together, so they are also known as functional words.

15. Classification of Words Lexical words are those have lexical meanings, those refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. There words carry the main content of a language, so they are also known as content words.

16. Closed-class words and open-class words A closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns etc., are all closed items. Classification of Words

17. An open-class word is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verb, adjectives, adverbs are all open-class items. Classification of Words

18. Word Class ( PARTS OF SPEECH in traditional grammar ) PARTICLES:  the infinitive marker ”to”,  the negative marker “not”,  the subordinate unites in phrasal verb, such as “get by(to continue) ”do up(to fasten) ”...

19. AUXILIARIES AUXILIARIES used to be regarded as verbs because of their unique properties, nowadays, linguists tend to define them as separate word class. Negationinversionemphasis Classification of Words

20. PRO-FORM In order to refer collectively to the items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions, linguists define them as a separate word class. 1. Your pen is red. So is hers.(pro-adjective) 2. He knows English better than he did.(pro-verb) 3. She hopes her mother will win and I hope so.(pro- adverb) 4. Tom is hiding there, behind the door.(pro-locative) Classification of Words

21. iv. Determiners

22. Morpheme is t he smallest meaningful unit of Morpheme is t he smallest meaningful unit of language for grammatical analysis is. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology. Every morpheme has meaning, either lexical or grammatical. A single word may consist of one or more morphemes. A single word may consist of one or more morphemes. Morpheme

23. A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. Ex. Tourists: -tour (one minimal unit) -ist (meaning “person who does something”) -ist (meaning “person who does something”) -s (a third unit of grammatical function indicating plurality) -s (a third unit of grammatical function indicating plurality)

24. Example: boyish boyish boy: a young, male human being boy: a young, male human being -ish: having the quality of -ish: having the quality of boyish: having the quality of a young, male boyish: having the quality of a young, male human being a word over 5 morphemes a word over 5 morphemes Antdisestablishmentarianism AntdisestablishmentarianismAnti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism ( 国家对教会不予承认论, 国教废除论 )

25. Some morphemes can stand alone as words. Such morphemes are called free morphemes.

26. A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such s talk. Such an element is called a root. When they are used with bound morphemes, the basic word-form involved is technically known as the stem.

27. lexical morphemes are called an open class of words because we can create new lexical morphemes. functional morphemes are called a closed class of words.

28. Bound morphemes PrefixesSuffixesinfixes

29. Bound morphemes can be classified into two categories: Derivational morphemes Inflectional morphemes

30. Eight inflectional morphemes (i) –‘s (possessive) (ii) –s (plural) (iii) –s (3rd person present singular) (iv) –ing (present participle) (v) –ed (past tense) (vi) –ed (past participle) (vii) –en (past participle) (viii) –est and –er (superlative and comparative degree)

31. The chart of the different categories of morphemes Lexical morphemes (work, house, kind) Free morphemes Functional morphemes (and, if, or, but) Derivational morphemes (-er, -ness, -ly) Bound morphemes Inflectional morphemes (-ed, -er, -est)

32. Morphological rules of word formation Morphological rules of word formation The ways words are formed are called morphological rules. The ways words are formed are called morphological rules. Ex: un + inhabit + able (un + adj = not – adjective) Ex: un + inhabit + able (un + adj = not – adjective) un + decided (un + adj form derived from a verb) un + decided (un + adj form derived from a verb) Some morphological rules can be productive but some are less. Some morphological rules can be productive but some are less.

33. Compounds: stringing words together Same category: landlady, blue-black, icy-cold Same category: landlady, blue-black, icy-cold Category changed keeping the grammatical category of the final word: head-strong, pickpocket Category changed keeping the grammatical category of the final word: head-strong, pickpocket Compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence, `redcoat, `greenhouse; red `coat, green `house Compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence, `redcoat, `greenhouse; red `coat, green `house

34. The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. For example, redcoat ( 在美国独立战争中服役的英国士兵 ), bigwig ( 有重大影响的人 ), highbrow, jack-in-a- box (a tropical tree), turncoat (a tractor) The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. For example, redcoat ( 在美国独立战争中服役的英国士兵 ), bigwig ( 有重大影响的人 ), highbrow, jack-in-a- box (a tropical tree), turncoat (a tractor) Compounding is then a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.

35. Lexical Change Lexical change proper （特有词汇变化） Lexical change proper （特有词汇变化） Phonological change Phonological change Morpho-syntactical change Morpho-syntactical change Semantic change Semantic change

36. Invention Invention With the development of economy and science and technology, new words spring up like mushrooms, e.g. clone, e-mail, plasma television, VCD, DVD, DJ, skyscraper, dry-wash, shampoo, digital watch, digital television, broad band, modem, basic language, multimedia resource centers, computer support services, disk, UFO etc. With the development of economy and science and technology, new words spring up like mushrooms, e.g. clone, e-mail, plasma television, VCD, DVD, DJ, skyscraper, dry-wash, shampoo, digital watch, digital television, broad band, modem, basic language, multimedia resource centers, computer support services, disk, UFO etc. Lexical Change

37. Blending （拼缀法） Blending is a relatively complex form of Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words, e.g. smog = smoke+ fog, smog = smoke+ fog, modem =modulator +demodulator), modem =modulator +demodulator), brunch =breakfast + lunch brunch =breakfast + lunch Pedlock = pedestrian + gridlock. Pedlock = pedestrian + gridlock. Glamazon: glamour + Amazon Glamazon: glamour + Amazon Lexical Change

38. Abbreviation : also called clipping, a new word Abbreviation : also called clipping, a new word is created by cutting the final part. advertisement ad advertisement ad bicycle bike bicycle bike brassiere bra brassiere bra delicatessen deli delicatessen deli professor prof professor prof television telly television telly

39. cutting the initial part cutting the initial part areoplane plane areoplane plane helicopter copter helicopter copter caravan van caravan van omnibus bus omnibus bus telephone phone telephone phone cutting both the initial and final part influenza flu influenza flu refrigerator fridge refrigerator fridge detective tec detective tec

40. Acronym （缩略语） Acronym （缩略语） Acronym is made up from the first letters of the Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. e.g. BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation VOA: Voice of America VOA: Voice of America GMT: Greenwich Mean time GMT: Greenwich Mean time IOC: International Olympic Committee IOC: International Olympic Committee ISBN: International Standard Book Number ISBN: International Standard Book Number UN: the United Nations UN: the United Nations OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Lexical Change

41. back-formation: an abnormal type of word- formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language, e.g. back-formation: an abnormal type of word- formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language, e.g. 1) from nouns swindler > swindle burglar> bugle swindler > swindle burglar> bugle beggar> beg editor> edit beggar> beg editor> edit author> auth emotion> emote author> auth emotion> emote donation> donate aggression> aggress donation> donate aggression> aggress Lexical Change

42. 2) from adjectives, e.g. peevish> peeve （气恼） gloomy> gloom cosy> cose/ coze lazy> laze greedy> greed gruesome> grue （因害怕而发抖） 3) from words ending in –ling, e.g. sidling> sidle （侧身而行） darkling> darkle （变阴暗） groveling> grovel （匍匐） Lexical Change

43. Borrowing Borrowing Greek: flokati, apocynthion, electricity, atom Greek: flokati, apocynthion, electricity, atom Latin: cancer, tumor, injunction, alibi, i.e., e.g., etc Latin: cancer, tumor, injunction, alibi, i.e., e.g., etc French: government, country, mortgage, entail French: government, country, mortgage, entail Spanish: macho, flotilla, grandee, embargo Spanish: macho, flotilla, grandee, embargo Italian: autostrada, cica, fresco, sonsta Italian: autostrada, cica, fresco, sonsta German: gemutlich, hamburger, dock, thick-milk German: gemutlich, hamburger, dock, thick-milk Chinese: taji, chow mien, wok, kung-fu Chinese: taji, chow mien, wok, kung-fu Japanese: Jodo Japanese: Jodo Lexical Change

44. BorrowingLoanwords The borrowing of LOANWORDS is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adoption to the phonological system of the new language. (tea from Chinese ) The borrowing of LOANWORDS is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adoption to the phonological system of the new language. (tea from Chinese )Loanblend This is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. (coconut from Spanish, Chinatown from Chinese) This is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. (coconut from Spanish, Chinatown from Chinese)

45. Lexical Change Loanshift （转移借词） : a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. bridge (Italian: ponte: a card game); artificial satellite (Russian : sputnik) bridge (Italian: ponte: a card game); artificial satellite (Russian : sputnik) Loan translation （翻译借词） : a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language. This is also called Calque, which may be a word, a phrase, or even a short sentence. free verse (Latin: verse libre); black humour( French: humour noir); found object (French: objet trouve) free verse (Latin: verse libre); black humour( French: humour noir); found object (French: objet trouve)

46. Lexical Change Analogical creation: the principle of Analogical creation can account for the coexistence of two form, regular and irregular in the conjugation of some English verbs. Hardware: software, shareware, vaporware, liveware, Hardware: software, shareware, vaporware, liveware,dreamware'. `men's wear, ladies' wear, underwear, sleepwear, `men's wear, ladies' wear, underwear, sleepwear, eyewear, legwear, sportswear, skiwear

47. Phonological change Phonological change It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It refers to changes in sound leading to changes in form. It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It refers to changes in sound leading to changes in form. a. Loss （脱落） : the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system, p. 103 b. Addition （添加） : sounds may also be added to the original sound sequence. c. Metathesis （移位） : a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. It had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community. Lexical Change

48. d. Assimilation （同化） : the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation. e. Dissimilation （异化） : the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different. Lexical Change

49. Morpho-syntactical change Morpho-syntactical change a. morphological change: it is concerned with the formation of new words on the derivational side, and the change in the form of inflectional affixes. Lexical Change

50. b. Syntactical change : changes in syntactical features of words In the fifteenth century, there were double In the fifteenth century, there were double comparative: more lower, most shamefulest comparative: more lower, most shamefulest In O. E., negation was expressed by particles such In O. E., negation was expressed by particles such as “ne” and “na”. as “ne” and “na”. In Shakespeare’s times, negation was expressed by putting the negative particle “not” at the end of the sentence, such as “He saw you not”. In Shakespeare’s times, negation was expressed by putting the negative particle “not” at the end of the sentence, such as “He saw you not”. Split infinitive Split infinitive Postponed preposition Postponed preposition Objective case of relative pronoun Objective case of relative pronoun Lexical Change

51. Semantic Change There are 3 kinds of semantic changes. Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its original specific sense to a relatively general one. Word used to be now means holiday holy day a day for rest holiday holy day a day for rest bird young bird any kind of bird bird young bird any kind of bird task tax imposed a piece of work task tax imposed a piece of work

52. offend to strike against to create or excite anger bird young bird any kind of bird quarantine forty days a period of time under enforced isolation companion a person with whom you share bread a person who accompanies you pile heap of stone a quantity of objects stacked and thrown together task tax imposed a piece of work (1) Broadening

53. Semantic Change Narrowing: The original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to specific sense.” Meat” in 17th century means “food’, now it refers to “the edible flesh of mammals.” Word used to be now means girl young person of either sex young woman girl young person of either sex young woman deer beast a particular kind of animal deer beast a particular kind of animal knight youth a medieval gentleman-soldier knight youth a medieval gentleman-soldier

54. (2) Narrowing camp open field a place where a body of men are temporarily lodged in tents girl young person of either sex young woman liquidliquid an alcoholic beverage by distillation orator one who speaks a person skilled in the art of public address hounddog a special kind of dog

55. Semantic Change Meaning shift All semantic changes involves meaning shift.Here it means the departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage. All semantic changes involves meaning shift.Here it means the departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage. Class shift By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution.This process of word formation is known as zero-derivation, or conversion. By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution.This process of word formation is known as zero-derivation, or conversion. engineer N. a person trained in a branch of engineering. V. to act as an engineer V. to act as an engineer

56. Semantic Change Folk etymology Folk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous. Folk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.

57. ENGLISH IDIOMS What is idiom? An idiom is an element of a language that possesses a unique way of expression based on its time-honored use. An idiom is an element of a language that possesses a unique way of expression based on its time-honored use. Classifications of idioms------proverbs English idioms are an important part of the English idioms are an important part of the English lexicon. Proverbs are one kind of special idioms. Every dog has his day ( A time of good fortune Every dog has his day ( A time of good fortune comes at least once to everyone. ) Don't trouble troubles until trouble troubles you. Don't trouble troubles until trouble troubles you. You may lead a horse to water, but you cannot You may lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink.

58. ENGLISH IDIOMS ENGLISH IDIOMS Classifications of idioms------as+adj.+as… as like as two beans, as cool as cucumber, as dark as as like as two beans, as cool as cucumber, as dark aspitch Classifications of idioms------vt+prep He will run to a new car.( have enough money to pay He will run to a new car.( have enough money to pay for ) Jean took to Paul as soon as they met. (like) Jean took to Paul as soon as they met. (like) Money burns a hole in his pocket (to be likely to Money burns a hole in his pocket (to be likely to spent ) It is another pair of shoes.(a totally different matter) It is another pair of shoes.(a totally different matter)