1. _______________

2. _____________ PROCESSES ‣ The earth is made up of a core, mantle, and crust and is constantly changing as a result of processes taking place on and below its surface. ‣ The earth’s interior consists of: ‣ _______: innermost zone with solid inner core and molten outer core that is extremely hot. ‣ _________: solid rock with a rigid outer part (asthenosphere) that is melted pliable rock. ‣ _______: Outermost zone which underlies the continents.

3. GEOLOGIC PROCESSES  Major features of the earth’s crust and upper mantle. Figure 15-2 3

4. The Earth’s _________ ‣ The Earth’s crust is relatively ______ relative to the rest of the planet. _________ km thick below the continents around ______ km thick below the oceans. ‣ The crust is rich in __________ and other lighter minerals such as silicon, calcium and aluminum and is less dense than the mantle. The crust rides over the mantle causing the formation of oceans, mountains and volcanoes. Lithosphere Asthenosphere Continental crust The continental crust is made up of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. It is not recycled within the Earth as often as oceanic crust, so some continental rocks are up to 4 billion years old. Oceanic crust More than two thirds of the Earth’s surface is composed of oceanic crust. Oceanic crust is continually formed from mantle material and so is relatively young. Even the oldest parts of the ocean floor are no more than 200 million years old.

5. Sediments eroded from continents and compressed into sedimentary rock can be later lifted and exposed in mountains Igneous rocks, such as basalt, form a major component of the crust and are essentially unchanged since their formation. The Earth's persistent oceans of liquid water cycle moisture through the atmosphere to the land and back again. Water, as rain, drains to rivers and lakes, which flow back to the ocean eroding the landscape in the process. The Earth’s Crust

6. The _______________ ‣ The ________________ comprises the crust and the upper most region of the mantle. ‣ The lithosphere carries the outer rock layer of the Earth, which is broken up into _______ large, continent- sized tectonic plates and about a dozen smaller plates ‣ The lithosphere overlies the ________, more _______lower part of the mantle, the _________________ Continental Crust Oceanic Crust Approx. 70km Asthenosphere Approx. 250km Mantle Lithosphere Mohorovicic discontinuity

7. Abundant Elements on Earth ‣ _________ - most abundant element in Earth’s crust. ‣ ________ - most abundant element in the Earth’s atmosphere. ‣ _______ - most abundant element in the Earth’s core. ‣ ___________ - element commercially extracted from bauxite

8. GEOLOGIC PROCESSES ‣ Huge volumes of heated and molten rack moving around the earth’s interior form massive solid __________ that move extremely slowly across the earth’s ________. ‣ ___________ ________: huge rigid plates that are moved with convection cells or currents by floating on _______ or molten rock.

9. Fig. 15-3, p. 337 Spreading center Ocean trench Plate movement Subduction zone Oceanic crust Continental crust Material cools as it reaches the outer mantle Cold dense material falls back through mantle Hot material rising through the mantle Mantle convection cell Two plates move towards each other. One is subducted back into the mantle on a falling convection current. Mantle Hot outer core Inner core Plate movement Collision between two continents Tectonic plate Oceanic tectonic plate Oceanic crust

10. The Earth’s ________ Tectonic Plates Figure 15-4

11. The Earth’s Major Tectonic Plates The extremely slow movements of these plates cause them to grind into one another at _______________ plate boundaries, move apart at ______________ plate boundaries and slide past at ______________ plate boundaries. Figure 15-4

12. Fig. 15-4, p. 338

13. Plate Boundaries ‣ Throughout geological time, the tectonic plates have moved about the Earth's surface, shuffling _______________, opening and closing ________, and building _____________. ‣ The _____________ for past plate movements has come from several sources: __________ of plate boundaries, the discovery of sea floor ___________, ________________ of the direction and rate of plate movement, the __________________ of ancient mountain chains, unusual deposits, and fossils Hot spot Mid-ocean ridge Subduction zone Oceanic crust Continental crust

14. _______________ of Plates ‣ Plate movement adds new ______ at boundaries, produces _________, __________, __________ and _________. ‣ The ________ plate is off the coast of California. Lots of volcanoes and earthquakes occur here. ‣ It is the ________ plate and the location of the ____________.

16. Plate ______________ ‣ Heat from the _________ drives two kinds of _______________ movement: _____________ __________________ ‣ Plate motion is also partly driven by the _________ of cold, dense plates ____________ into the mantle at trenches. ‣ This heavier, cooler material ____________ under the influence of gravity displaces heated material that _________ as mantle plumes. IRON-NICKEL CORE New crust created at spreading ridge Mantle plume of hotter material rising from near the core Crust melts as it descends into mantle Crust cools and sinks into mantle under the influence of gravity Heating and cooling causes convection

17. ______ floor Spreading ‣ Sea floor spreading occurs as _________ wells up from the mantle below, forcing the plates ________. ‣ As the new ______ cools and solidifies it picks up and preserves the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field. On average the Earth’s magnetic field reverses once every million years. This leaves magnetic bands in the crust. New rock on either side of the ridge has the same magnetic information. This shows clear evidence of sea floor spreading and plates tectonics.

18. _______________ Plates ‣ The ______ of the plates is constantly __________, with some expanding and some getting smaller. ‣ These changes occur along plate boundaries, which are marked by well-defined zones of _________ and __________ activity. ‣ Plate ________ occurs at divergent boundaries along sea floor spreading ridges such as the __________ Ridge and the ______ _____. Divergent plate boundary Continental rift zone The changing convection currents inside the Earth can cause new boundaries to form and old ones to disappear. Magma upwellings through fractures cause plates to diverge.

19. ______________ Plates ‣ Plate attrition occurs at convergent boundaries marked by deep ocean _________ and __________ zones. The _______ plate is a convergent plate. Deep sea trench Active volcano Mountain range Continental crust Oceanic crust Mantle Subducting plate Convergent plate boundaryDivergent plate boundary When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, it sinks in to the mantle and eventually melts.

20. Plate ____________ ‣ The Earth’s major __________ and _________ zones occur along plate boundaries. ‣ The movements of plates puts crustal rocks under strain. ‣ _______ are created where rocks fracture and slip past each other. ‣ __________ are caused by the energy released during rapid slippage along faults. New Zealand’s alpine fault is visible from space, marking a transform boundary between the Indo-Australian plate and the Pacific plate.

21. ____________ Boundaries ‣ Where _____________ plates meet, the land may buckle and fold into ___________ ranges. ‣ The highest mountains on Earth, the ____________, were formed in this way as the subcontinent of India ________ with continental Asia. ‣ Few volcanoes form in these areas because the continental crust is so ________.

22. ____________ Boundaries ‣ Plates may ______ past each other at transform boundaries ‣ Plate _____ is not affected because there is _____ construction or destruction of material at these boundaries. However, they are responsible for large _____________. ‣ ___________ from the plates causes the boundary to lock in position and earthquakes occur when the rock _______ way to release the pressure. Faultline movement after an earthquake San Andreas fault Image: NASA Photo: Wiki commons

23. __________ Boundary California will not fall into the ocean!

26. The Rock _________ ‣ The Rock _______ is the interaction of processes that change rocks from one type to another. ‣ The Earth's rocks are grouped together according to the way they formed as: igneous metamorphic sedimentary rocks ‣ Igneous rocks are created by _________ and may form above the surface as ________ rocks or below the surface as _________ rocks. ‣ ______ and ___________within the Earth can transform pre-existing rocks to form metamorphic rocks. ‣ When rocks are exposed at the surface, they are subjected to __________and ________ and form sediments.

27. __________ of ______ ‣ The Earth's _______ is made up of solid, naturally occurring assemblages of minerals called _______. ‣ The huge diversity of the Earth's rocks has developed over thousands of millions of years through: __________ activity (volcanism) _______________ (changes in form) _______________ (formation of sediments and sedimentary rocks) Igneous rocks Metamorphic rocks Sedimentary rocks All 3 rocks are recycled and converted into all classes

28. _______ of Rock ‣ Igneous rocks solidify from volcanic magma They vary in composition from basalt to granite and in texture from rapidly cooled glasses, such as obsidian, to slowly cooled coarse grains, such as granite. ObsidianMarbleConglomerate SandstoneSchistGranite ‣ Metamorphic rocks result when pre-existing rock is transformed by heat and pressure. Metamorphic rocks are classified by texture and composition. Examples include gneiss, slate, marble and schist. ‣ Sedimentary rocks form when sediments accumulate in different depositional environments and then become compressed into brittle, layered rocks, e.g. shale, sandstone, limestone, and conglomerate.

29. Rock _______________ ‣ _________ - forms the bulk of the earth’s crust. It is the main source of many non- fuel _________ resources. ‣ ________ Igneous Rocks – formed from the solidification of ________ below ground ‣ ________ Igneous Rocks – formed from the solidification of ______ above ground ‣ Examples – Granite, Pumice, Basalt, Diamond, Tourmaline, Garnet, Ruby, Sapphire

30. __________________ ‣ Rock formed from __________. Most form when rocks are ________ and ______ into small pieces, transported, and deposited in a body of surface water. __________ – pieces that are cemented together by quartz and calcium carbonate (______). Examples: sandstone (sand stuck together), Conglomerate (rounded & concrete-looking) and Breccia (like conglomerate but w/ angular pieces)

31. Sedimentary (Continued) ‣ ____________ – ‣ _________ Precipitates – _________ precipitates out and oozes to the bottom of the ocean (this is why there is a lot of limestone in S.A.) ‣ _________ Sediments – like _____ & ______ ‣ Petrified _____ & _______ wood

32. ________________ ‣ Description – when ___________ rock is subjected to ______ temperatures (which may cause it to partially melt), high pressures, chemically active fluids, or a combination of these ‣ Location – ______ within the earth

33. Examples of Metamorphism: ‣ _______ Metamorphism- rock that is next to a body of ________ Ex. __________under heat becomes ________ through crystallization Limestone -> marble sandstone -> quartzite shale -> hornfelds (slate)

34. __________ Metamorphism – earth __________ crushes & breaks rocks along a ______. Rocks may be brittle- (rock and mineral grains are broken and crushed) or it may be ductile- (plastic behavior occurs.) Rocks formed along fault zones are called ___________.

35. Metamorphic (Continued) ‣ __________ Metamorphism – during mountain building; great quantities of rock are subject to intense ________and _______. Ex. cont. shelves ram together ___________Metamorphism – One form of rock __________ into another shale->slate->schist->gneiss coal->graphite granite->gneiss

36. Rock Dynamics Fine grained (volcanic) Course grained (plutonic) Mineral content Silica content Fluidity pH *Mafic minerals contain magnesium, iron, and heavy elements. They are usually dark in color. Felsic minerals contain lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, and aluminum. They are usually light in color.

37. The Rock Cycle Magma Intrusive igneous rock LAND Metamorphic rock SEA The rock cycle constantly redistributes material within and at the Earth's surface over millions of years by melting, erosion, and metamorphism. It is the slowest of the Earth's cycles and is responsible for concentrating the mineral resources on which humans depend. MANTLE CRUST SURFACE ROCKS FORMED AT THE EARTH'S SURFACE ROCKS FORMED IN THE EARTH'S INTERIOR Extrusive igneous rock cooling and crystallization burial and recrystallization deep burial metamorphic rock deep burial metamorphic rock melting cooling and crystallization uplift and erosion uplift and erosion weathering, exposure, and transport, followed by burial Sedimentary rock burial and recrystallization

38. Steps

39. Rock Cycle

40. ‣ ____________ Era– oldest and largest division of geologic time (87% of Earth’s history) ‣ Time Frame – _______________million years ago ‣ Organisms ‣ oldest definite fossils known ‣ ___________ (lacking a cell membrane), Similar to cyanobacteria; (oxygen-producing & underwent photosynthesis) ‣ It was ____ billion years later before the origin of eukaryotes ‣ By the end of this era we had the origin of shell-less ______________ __________ Time

41. _____________ Era ‣ Time Frame – ___________million years ago ‣ Periods – (from oldest) Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian ‣ Organisms – (referred to as the explosion of life) ‣ At the beginning was the origin of most ______________ ‣ Then the first ___________ & first land ________ appeared ‣ Around the middle of this era the first ____________ and _________appeared ‣ During the second half of this era the first _________ appeared.

42. _____________ ‣ Time Frame – 245 to 66 million years ago ‣ Periods – Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous ‣ Age of the ___________________ ‣ Organisms – ‣ During Triassic the first ___________ & __________ appeared ‣ ___________-dinosaurs become dominant ‣ __________- mammals began to spread out and flowering plants appeared & the dinosaurs became extinct

43. ____________ ‣ Time Frame – _____ million years ago to the present. ‣ Age of __________. ‣ Periods – ‣ Tertiary – Paleocene, Iocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pilocene ‣ Quaternary – Pleistocene, Recent

44. Evidence - _________ ‣ ________ Dating – The age of a fossil in terms of other fossils around it. Fossils in layers of sedimentary rocks (_____), younger are on top & older are in the lower layers. ‣ _______ Fossils – are used to coordinate the fossils at one location with those at another. For ex. One island with another

45. Evidence Cont. ‣ __________ Dating – age is given in _______ instead of relative terms ‣ Ex. _________ Dating – determines the age of fossils by looking at the __________ of elements that accumulate with the organisms when they were alive

46. Fossil Record ‣ Fossils are ___________ or ________ replicas of skeletons, bones, teeth, shells, leaves and seeds or impressions of such items; usually found in sedimentary rock. ‣ Organisms had to die on the right _____ and _______ time for burial conditions to favor ____________ ‣ ______ must be exposed for us to see ‣ The fossil record is __________because of this.

47. Fossil Types ‣ _________ – the actual body or parts of an organism ‣ _________ – the bone has been replaced by mineral ‣ _______ – bone gets buried and the sediment turns into rock, and the animal is dissolved away ‣ ______ – if another mineral fills the mold and hardens in the shape of the old animal it becomes a cast ‣ _______ – footprints left in the sediment that solidifies ‣ Ex. dinosaur tracks in Texas

48. Types continue ‣ ______________ – if an animal dies and the sediment crushes the animals as fossilization is occurring, you will have a thin black coating on the fossil. Much of this is coal. ‣ ___________– (trace fossil) there is an impression of the fossil, but the fossil is gone ‣ ________ – resin from certain trees that small insects and other organisms get trapped in

49. Types Continued ‣ ________ – an animal like a worm burrows into the mud, then the burrow becomes fossilized ‣ _________ – fossil excrement (poop) can sometimes give definitive knowledge about the eating habits of the animals ‣ __________ – smooth, polished stones that are found in the abdominal cavities of the skeletons of dinosaurs. They are thought to have helped the huge animals grind up vegetation in their stomachs.

50. Fossil Record ‣ Ideal __________ – quick burial and the presence of some hard parts ‣ ____________ – tells us the date of the organism by dating the rock. You can tell what came before what by superposition; mass extinctions; pop. explosions. ‣ __________ for Evolution – changes over time can be seen. i.e. __________ fossils