1. The Art of Delegation: A Mini-Course

2. What is Delegation?
“Delegation is primarily about entrusting others . This means that they can act and initiate independently; and that they assume responsibility with you for certain tasks.”(Blair 2005) An effective manager is knowledgeable about the strengths and weaknesses of his colleagues. Employees are looked upon as members of a team; each playing a significant role into getting a goal accomplished.
Let’s start our mini-course today by defining what delegation is. “Delegation is primarily about entrusting others . This means that they can act and initiate independantly; and that they assume responsibility with you for certain tasks.”(Blair 2005) An effective manager is knowledgeable about the strengths and weaknesses of his colleagues. Employees are looked upon as members of a team; each playing a significant role into getting a goal accomplished.

3. What is Delegation? According to www.businessballs.com,
delegation can be best described in the
acronym SMARTER
Specific
Measurable
Agreed
Realistic
Timebound
Ethical
Recorded
According to delegation can be best described using the acronym SMARTER. Delegation should be specific, measurable, agreed on, realistic, timebound, ethical, and it must be recorded.

4. Why is the ability to effectively delegate important to a manager?
Allows time to focus on other initiatives and increased flexibility (Yates, 2002).
It provides an opportunity for the manager to gain trust in the performance of their employees, and in turn earn respect from his employees (Hughes, 2004).
While the manager has the final responsibility for completing the task, delegating tasks can also allow him to build on his leadership skills (Nahavandi, 2006)
Effectively delegating to employees is important to a manager because it allows extra time to focus on other goals and objectives. The “do more with less” attitude within companies today, does not allow enough time to do everything alone. “Delegation allows you to achieve more through the proper selection, assignment, and coordination of tasks and resources.” (Yates, 2002) Delegation can allow the manager added flexibility in focusing on true managerial tasks.
Managers that delegate to their employees can learn more about what their employees are capable of, and in turn, gain trust in their overall performance. “If you don’t delegate, you’ll find yourself doing all the work in the future because nobody else has learned how.” (New Zealand Management, 1999) As a manager establishes trust and develops rapport with employees of the organization, he can delegate tasks and in turn gain respect from his employees. “This not only helps you avoid spreading yourself too thin but also engenders respect for you as a leader.” (Hughes, 2004)
Although the manager will be accountable for the end result of the work, delegating can provide an opportunity for him to work with his employees and provide them with appropriate training to complete the tasks successfully. (Nahavandi, 2006) Providing training to employees and teaching them specific tasks can increase his leadership skills by providing objectives and goals, and overall support to his employees.

5. Why is the ability to effectively delegate important to a manager?
Effective delegation can increase communication between managers and employees
Effectively delegating can develop a balanced workload, and provide time to have a life outside of work
Delegating can promote a team environment and lead to increased productivity
(Nahavandi, 2006)
Good communication is important with any business, and can increase the effectiveness of delegation. “Leaders must be clear about their expectations and support their followers while they perform the task.” (Nahavandi, 2006) Simply delegating a task is not enough; the manager needs to continuously communicate their expectations to the employee, to obtain good results. In turn, employees will feel confident in that they can communicate with their manager as well.
In the end, if a manager effectively delegates work, it will not only add extra time at work to work on other projects, but can allow added time outside of the work place to enjoy family , participate in recreational activities, and remove themselves from the day-to-day stress that can arise at the work place.
Managers can delegate tasks to their employees, and work with them as a team to accomplish tasks. “Teams create a formal structure through which participation in decision making can be achieved.” (Nahavandi, 2006) Working together allows employees to be involved in the decision making process, and can increase productivity.

6. Why is the ability to effectively delegate important to a company?
Those who manage people and tasks cannot manage everything themselves.
The worst case scenario is called “reverse delegation” in which the manager switches roles with their direct reports.
Delegation insures that tasks can be distributed and delegated to subject matter experts and completed quickly.
We “hire” people for a reason; being able to delegate appropriate responsibilities to these individuals frees the manager to do their own job.
Subordinates cannot delegate the authority which resides only with a manager.
The Issues To Be Resolved may be the most important part of the communication process. Why? Because here is where so many supervisors fail to be specific. If the assignment is not well-defined at the start, it is most certainly doomed to fail or at least produce a disappointing result. If you can't define that you expect in 25 words or less, perhaps you should re-think the assignment. (Callarman)
Doing an employee's work can eat up a supervisor's time. Reverse delegation is caused by several factors: 1. The employee is afraid of criticism, likes to avoid risk, or lacks confidence. 2. The employee lacks sufficient information or resources to do the job. 3. The manager wants to be needed and cannot refuse a request for help. The pattern can be turned around by using training, resource planning, communication, and common-sense management. An employee's problems should be discussed at the manager's convenience, and the employee should be expected to be prepared with possible solutions. The manager should end the discussion with directives for the employee to report back on the final solution to the problem. In this way, the employee can develop a good feel for what the manager wants and will gain confidence (Callarman et. al)
It is generally recognized that managers do not reduce their own accountability by delegating authority. The other major tenet of effective delegation is that authority must be delegated commensurate with the responsibility to be exacted. However, both of these myths have little substance concerning the practice of management, at least among American managers. Most managers are charged with responsibility but lack the authority needed to carry out the task. Also, managers usually refuse to take responsibility for actions of subordinates if such action is severely detrimental to the image of the organization or the manager's career. There is also a paradox associated with delegation. High-performing subordinates are likely to prefer that results be specified, while low-performing subordinates are likely to prefer that results be ambiguous. It is important that the paradox be reduced or eliminated to create congruency between superior and subordinate expectations. (Bushardt, Stephen C.,  Duhon, David L., et. al., abstract)
(Callarman, 1988), (Bushardt, Stephen C.,  Duhon, David L., et. al., abstract, 1991)

7. What CAN be delegated? Do Delegate:
Tasks that are non-management tasks. (Fracaro, 2006)
Tasks with which you can pass on authority. (Protch, 2006)
Tasks that boost an employee’s skills and challenges them.
This is also called Trivial Pursuit.
Tasks that are paired with training, or are skill appropriate. (Nahavandi, 2006).
What can you delegate?
There are certain tasks that are appropriate to delegate and other tasks that are NOT appropriate to delegate. First we will discuss those tasks which can be delegated and then we will cover those that cannot, or should not, be delegated.
First, you want to only delegate tasks that are non-management style tasks (Fracaro, 2006). These would be tasks that can be done without requiring management knowledge or power. It is important to make sure that the tasks are appropriate for the level that the employee is at in the company.
Next, you want to make sure that you not only delegate a task, but also delegate authority along with that task (Protch, 2006). If an employee does not have authority delegated to them, then they may not be able to access sources that are required to complete the task given.
Also, some tasks can be delegated to help boost an employees skills and knowledge of the company. These tasks would be something that is challenging to the employee, but not over their head. Tasks such as these help to improve the employees background and skills, while encouraging the employees confidence and esteem. These type of tasks are referred to as Trivial Pursuit tasks (How to delegate work and make sure it's done right, 1994).
Lastly, you want to make sure that the tasks that are delegated are either skill appropriate, or are paired with appropriate training for the task so that employees feel supported and get the needed skills (Nahavandi, 2006).

8. What CAN’T be delegated?
Don’t Delegate:
Tasks that an employee does not have the skills to complete.
This is also called Punishment.
Tasks that are busy work.
This is also called Dumping.
Tasks which you are constantly detailing out instructions for.
This is also called Puppetering.
Tasks should not be constantly delegated to the same individual,
Tasks that involve personnel issues.
(Nahavandi, 2006)
What can’t you delegate?
As said before, it is important to make sure that an employee has the skills to complete the task. It would be ridiculous to ask someone to make sales calls to new asian accounts if they have never made sales calls out of the country before, or if they don’t know how to speak the native language. This is referred to as a punishment task because there is no way the employee will be able to complete the task (How to delegate work and make sure it's done right, 1994).
Also, you don’t want to give subordinates busy work that makes it appear that you are simply handing off the unpleasant work that you don’t want to do. This is simply dumping (How to delegate work and make sure it's done right, 1994, Nahavandi, 2006).
Another type of task you shouldn’t delegate is a task for which you detail out the instructions, and meddle in every aspect of the control of the task. This will make the employee feel as though they don’t have control or authority over the task, and is also called puppetering tasks (How to delegate work and make sure it's done right, 1994).
Another way to mis-delegate is to constantly give the same employees delegated work (Nahavandi, 2006). Employees who are successful and have a good relationship with their leader may be prime candidates for delegated work because they are trustworthy. However, this will lead to an overload for that employee, and resentment among other employees who feel that they are missing opportunities that could have been theirs.
Lastly, and most importantly, any task that involves personal issues should not be delegated (Nahavandi, 2006). Examples of tasks that are personal would be performance evaluations, reprimands, monitoring coworkers productivity, and others. These are certainly considered the responsibility of the leader and should not be handed off to another employee.

9. Delegation vs. Dumping Delegation Dumping Examine the tasks.
Coordinate the tasks.
Assign the tasks.
Support and provide feedback.
Reward completion
Dumping
Handing off work that the supervisor does not feel like doing.
Passing responsibility and accountability.
What is the difference between dumping and delegation?
Good delegation has a specific framework. If certain steps are not taken employees will fell like the workload was dumped on them. Managers must delegate tasks of all levels of difficulty, this will help employees learn and create new skills. The major difference between delegation and dumping is: delegation-the manager responsibly assigns, describes, clarifies and supports employee through the completion of the task. Dumping-the manager does not want to do the task and gives the responsibility to a subordinate. Delegation is not limited to passing out new assignments. Delegation is a skill that is mastered. A manager must learn how to examine the duties, coordinate the delegation, support and follow up through the process and reward good work (Fracaro, 2006). While tasks may be completed by a subordinate the manager is still accountable for the final project. When a manager dumps projects the responsibility is dumped as well. Dumping is not a process and is an unreciprocated relationship. Good delegation is an interaction between the manager and employee. Good delegation gives the employee a healthy challenge with future benefits (Shanley, Rohlander & DGR Communications, 1998).
In examining the duties, the manager must sort the managerial and non-managerial tasks. Managerial tasks should be worthy of the managers time and a necessity to the managers expertise. The manager should analyze which tasks are priorities and which tasks can be taken on by a subordinate.
Coordinating the delegation includes finding the right employee. It is important to allow a multitude of employees to accomplish tasks. Choosing top performers only allows growth with those particular employees. Assigning tasks should be seen as a skill builder that all employees should be involved in. When assigning tasks clear instructions and expectations should be detailed.
Supporting the employees through the task is essential to correcting mistakes and allowing the employee to voice their creative ideas. Modifying and reorganizing the newly assigned task with open communication so the employee can learn from the mistakes (Foster, 2004).
Rewarding good work will motivate the employee to take on future projects. Rewards also help establish trust and respect from the subordinates. Using delegation is empowering to the employees and the production for the company (Facaro, 2006).
(Fracaro, 2006), (Shanley, Rohlander & DGR Communications, 1998),
(Foster, 2004)

10. Delegation and Ethical Issues
Suggested Solution
1. Fair selection process
Tie delegated tasks to Performance Appraisal.
Monitor number and type.
2. Scope of responsibility
Clarify limits of authority.
3. Accountability
Establish check points.
Check for law or policy violations.
4. Feedback & support
Set up regular feedback.
5. Failure
Establish ramifications for failure.
6. Recognition
Distribute recognition fairly.
Delegation and Ethical Issues
When supervisors decide to delegate a task or responsibility, they are often concerned with having the task done right. What is often missing in the delegation decision making process is the question of whether there are any potential ethical issues that could arise. Here some examples of ethical issues in various stages of the delegation process:
Is this a task or responsibility that I should be delegating according to company policy or practice?
What criteria am I using to assign tasks?
Am I focusing only on in-group members, or distributing task unfairly which could lead to accusations of favoritism, retaliation, preferential treatment, or discrimination?
Are these tasks distributed according to a written plan, such as a Performance Appraisal or Individual Development Plan?
Are the number and weight of the delegated tasks fairly distributed?
What are the delegate’s limits of responsibility and access to information?
How accountable are the delegates for reaching the goal?
What are the legal ramifications for the supervisor if the delegate violates laws or policies in the pursuit of attaining the goal?
What check points will I establish and how often?
How often should I provide feedback and support so that the employee does not feel set up to fail.
How will a failure affect their Performance Evaluation?
Who will receive recognition and how much (especially if others were not given the chance to excel in a similar project)?
Here are some key ethical concerns and suggestions:
Fair selection process
Tie task choice into Performance Appraisal or an Individual Development Plan.
Monitor number and quality of delegated tasks given to each employee and assure that the tasks were challenging and stimulated growth for each individual employee (Fracaro, 2004).
Scope of responsibility
Make clear the limits of authority including access to employee information (Kelly, 2005).
Accountability
Establish checkpoints to measure progress. Monitor and check for violations of policy or law. Remain the person ultimately accountable, especially in the area of finance (Tornqvist, 1999).
Feedback & support
Provide regular feedback and support (Hughes, 2005; Fracaro, 2004).
Failure
Clearly communicate in the beginning the ramifications of poor performance (Hughes, 2005).
Recognition
Fairly distribute recognition where delegation has resulted in success to keep employees committed (Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, 2002).
Supervisors should be sensitive to the various ethical issues that could arise from delegating tasks and responsibilities to employees. It is important to plan to delegate your tasks (Fracaro, 2004). The ultimate responsibility of both the task result and the delegation process rests with the Supervisor (Nahavandi, 2006).
Resources:
Fracaro, K. (2004). Making delegation work. Supervision, 65(9),
Hughes, C. (2005). Effective leaders delegate. LP/Gas, 65, 10.
Kelly, K. (2005). Shouldering risks. FSB: Fortune Small Business, 15(9), 27.
Nahavandi, A. (2006). The art and science of leadership. (4th edition) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Tornqvist, U. (1999). An empirical study of accountability: Delegation of responsibility and external disclosure in some Swedish companies.
European Accounting Review, 8,
Wayne, S., Shore, L., Bommer, W., & Tetrick, L. (2002). The Role of Fair Treatment and Rewards in Perceptions of Organizational Support and Leader-Member Exchange. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3),
(Fracaro, 2004), (Kelly, 2005), (Tornqvist, 1999), (Hughes, 2005), (Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, 2002), (Nahavandi, 2006)

11. Why Managers Have Difficulty Delegating Effectively
Modern/Freudian Personality Paradigm
Cognitive Dimension
Match Task Requirements to Resources
Observational & Rational Process
Environmental Externality
Affective Dimension
Passion to Motivate, Encourage & Inspire Team Members
Predisposition for Communication
Internally Based
Intuitive Dimension
Mediates the Cognitive with Affective
Big Picture View, Weaving Leader’s Interest with that of the Team
Ethically Based
Intuitive/Superego
Cognitive/Ego
Why do managers have a difficult time delegating effectively?
The manager’s difficulty with effective delegation may be viewed using the classical Freudian concepts of the leader’s personality, namely his/her ego, id, and superego (Freud, 1925). In this sense, the leader’s problems with delegating effectively are broken down into the following three dimensions: cognitive, affective and intuitive (Barter, 2002). The cognitive dimension consists of identifying task related requirements and matching them with available resources, an observational and rational process that is more external to oneself. The affective dimension consists of the leader’s feelings toward motivating or driving team members, and communicating effectively, an emotional process more internal to oneself. The intuitive dimension consists of integrating the cognitive and affective dimensions to see the whole picture, an ethical process that weaves the leader’s interest with that of the team’s (possibly with other teams’ as well in multidimensional organizations).
Affective/Id
(Freud, 1925), (Barter, 2002)

12. Why Managers Have Difficulty Delegating Effectively
Cognitive Factors
Assess Member Skills & Training
Evaluate Channels of Communication
Task Complexity
Span of Control
Affective Factors
Excess Urgency
Time Constraints & Limitations
Leader’s Experience and Knowledge
Relinquishing some Power & Control ?
The leader needs a rational assessment of team member knowledge and skills to match them with his/her multiple roles as trainer, communicator, facilitator, supporter and supervisor. For example, highly educated and skilled professionals who are micromanaged will be less satisfied and productive. Manager evaluation of communication channels enables the team members to efficiently interact among themselves and with external teams (Barter, 2002). The leader needs a reasoned analysis of his span of control, depending on the complexity of the work, and the training and personality of team members. More complex and detailed work narrows the manager’s span of control, whereas experienced team members widens his/her span. Studies have shown that adding one extra team member increases potential interactions by over a factor of two or geometrically. (Barter, 2002).
The classical Freudian id driven affective motivations may cause leaders to be unable to relinquish power (Straw, 1988). As the esteemed UK Foreign Secretry Jack Straw once noted “those who gain power rarely give this up voluntarily.” (Straw, 1988) As affective mental processes commutate readily with cognitive ones, the fear of losing control is well founded on ideas of perfectionism (Kamlish, 2005), and rational expectations of uncertainty (Hattrup & Kleiner, 1993). Time constraints and senses of urgency may further drive such affective reasoning to the surface: e.g., while reacting to faculty demands consistent with his own, a university president fails to consult with all affected constituencies (Quick, Nelson, & Quick, 1987). There is also the valid concern over passing his/her knowledge on to individuals with questionable interests (Kamlish, 2005).
Trying to mediate these seemingly contradictory and uncertain factors causes managers great difficulties to delegate effectively.
(Barter, 2002), (Straw, 1988), (Hattrup & Kleiner, 1993), (Kamlish, 2005), (Quick, Nelson, & Quick, 1987)

13. Why Is Effective Communication a Direct Link to Successful Delegation?
Effective communication means delegates are able to understand and carry out a given task.
Direct link to successful delegation implies that good communication equals success.
Two individuals must establish and maintain bi-directional communication - the manager and the delegate - in order that the link between communication and delegation is achieved.
The open line of communication will create a sense of confidence enabling the delegate to carry out the task(s).
Delegates who communicate effectively with one another will create group cohesion and open doors to cooperation.
(Nahavandi, 2006)
Good communication is important with any business, and can increase the effectiveness of delegation. “Leaders must be clear about their expectations and support their followers while they perform the task.” (Nahavandi, 2006) Simply delegating a task is not enough; the manager needs to continuously communicate their expectations to the employee, to obtain good results. In turn, employees will feel confident in that they can communicate with their manager as well.
In the end, if a manager effectively delegates work, it will not only add extra time at work to work on other projects, but can allow added time outside of the work place to enjoy family , participate in recreational activities, and remove themselves from the day-to-day stress that can arise at the work place.
Managers can delegate tasks to their employees, and work with them as a team to accomplish tasks. “Teams create a formal structure through which participation in decision making can be achieved.” (Nahavandi, 2006) Working together allows employees to be involved in the decision making process, and can increase productivity.
Subordinates fail to meet expectations for a number of reasons. The reasons include lack of: directions, understanding of boundary limits, problem definition, adequate time relief from routine duties, support resources and a well-defined feedback loop.
The Issues To Be Resolved may be the most important part of the communication process. Why? Because here is where so many supervisors fail to be specific. If the assignment is not well-defined at the start, it is most certainly doomed to fail or at least produce a disappointing result. If you can't define that you expect in 25 words or less, perhaps you should re-think the assignment.