1. CHAPTER 8: POLITICAL PARTIES

2. What Is a Political Party? In the United States the voting population is nearly evenly divided between people who identify themselves as Democrats, as Republicans and as “independents,” (a voter who does not identify with a political party). When control of the legislative and executive branches of government is divided between the parties, it is called “divided government.”

3. What Is a Political Party? In the United States the definition of a political party is, “a group of political activists who organize to win elections, to operate the government, and to determine public policy.” This type of definition makes a major distinction between a political party and an interest group. Interest groups want to influence a specific type of public policy, but are not interested in controlling the government. This definition also distinguishes itself from factions, which are smaller groups of individuals from within a political party who are acting together in pursuit of some special interest or position. For a political party to be successful, it must unite diverse groups that have different policy orientations. How much success the political party has will depend on how effectively the party can convince voters from various factions to support the candidates of the party.

4. What Is a Political Party? Although political parties were not provided for in the Constitution, they are now crucial to the operation of the government of the United States. Parties perform essential functions that allow the government to operate in a stable environment. Recruiting candidates to run for elective offices at all levels of government on the party label. By attracting quality candidates the party enhances its chance of winning the elective positions and controlling the government. Organizing and running elections is the responsibility of the two major parties in most states. Each major party mobilizes citizens to become voters in both primary and general elections.

5. What Is a Political Party? Presenting alternative policies to the electorate is an essential role the major parties perform. The voters do not have to research where each candidate stands on every issue. By understanding the position of each party on the major issues the voter has some indication of the position of a candidate on these issues.

6. What Is a Political Party? Accepting the responsibility of operating government at all levels of the government is crucial to the functioning of the political process. Parties organize how Congress operates (see Chapter 10 for details on committee organization), how the president selects individuals to serve in the executive branch (see Chapters 11 and 12 for details), and the president nominates all federal judges, most of whom are of the same party as the president (see Chapter 13 for details on the nomination process). Parties also perform the same functions at the state and local levels of government.

7. What Is a Political Party? Providing organized opposition to the party in power is often overlooked as an important aspect of the political process. In many countries, the party in power controls the government and limits participation by the party, or parties, out of power. Such a process makes it difficult for the people to be made aware of the problems confronting the government from a perspective other than the party in power. In the U.S. the opposition party has a strong voice in the governmental process.

8. A History of Political Parties in the United States Political parties did not exist when the Constitution was drafted and are not mentioned anywhere in the Constitution. Yet the debate surrounding the ratification of the Constitution also was the era in which political parties in the United States were created. The two-party system we not see in our own political landscape originated among supporters of the Constitution (the Federalists) and those who though the state should be the locus of authority and advocated a Bill of Rights (the Anti-Federalists).

9. A History of Political Parties in the United States The formative years in the development of parties took place between 1790 and 1816. The Federalist Party became the first party to gain control of the national government. By 1796 the next major party came into the political process. This party was headed by Thomas Jefferson and was called the Democratic-Republicans. Within a few years this party became known as simply the Democratic Party and the current Democratic Party claims its origin as the party built by Jefferson.

10. A History of Political Parties in the United States The Federalist Party began to erode as a viable party and from 1817 to 1828 only the Democratic-Republicans had control of the government. This period, sometimes called The Era of Good Feeling, represents one of the very few times when the United States did not have a two-party system.

11. A History of Political Parties in the United States The next major party to form was the Whigs in 1828. With the development of the Whigs as a major political force came the return to a two- party system, which would last until the beginning of the turmoil of the Civil War. As the issues of slavery and state rights divided the nation, political parties were also divided over these issues. The Whigs began to collapse as a party in the mid-1840s and the Democrats began to divide into various factions.

12. A History of Political Parties in the United States As the Civil War was about to begin the next major party was becoming a factor in the political process. The Republican Party (not to be confused with the Democratic-Republicans of the 1790s) controlled the government for most of 1860 to 1928. During this period the Democrats were the opposition party and only gained control of part of the government for brief periods.

14. A History of Political Parties in the United States The Democratic party controlled the House of Representatives for 40 years prior to the election of the 104th Congress (1994), and since 1930 have only lost control of both houses three times. While the Democrats were the dominant party in Congress for the 40-year period from 1954 to 1994, they have traded power back and forth with the Republicans in the presidency. Since 1930 (1930-2002) Democrats have had 40 years of control of the executive branch to the Republicans 32 years of control. Both parties have shared power at the state and local level since 1930. Some states, like Utah, have had long periods of Republican control and other states, like Louisiana, have had long periods of Democratic control. However, no party other than the Democrats or the Republicans has controlled the government, or a part of the government, in the twentieth century. Therefore, regardless of the dominate party it would seem likely that one of the two dominate parties will control the government at both the national and state levels.

17. The Two Major Parties Today Unlike European parties, many of which are divided along class and religious lines, parties in the United States are very broad based coalitions. Because of the structure of the two-party system, both major parties must appeal to a wide range of citizens. Still certain groups are more likely to affiliate with one party.

18. The Two Major Parties Today The Democratic party has had support from the following groups: –ethnic minorities –members of labor unions –Jewish voters –the working class –women

19. The Two Major Parties Today The Republican party has had support from the following groups: –college graduates –higher income families –professionals –business people

21. The Three Faces of a Party Political parties in the United States are comprised of three components. The party in the electorate is comprised of the people who identify with the party or who regularly vote for the candidates of the party in general elections. Without the party in the electorate it would not be possible for the party to have electoral success.

22. The Three Faces of a Party Party organization is the second subunit of the political party. The function of party organization is to provide leadership and structure for the party that is not a part of the government. The last subunit is the party in the government. This includes all elected and appointed officials who gained office on the label of the party. Once in office the leaders work to organize the efforts of the party in order to influence governmental policy that is favorable to the platform of the party. For a political party to be successful it must have all three subunits.

23. The Three Faces of a Party In theory American political parties are structured like a pyramid, with the national party organization at the top and the local party organization serving as the base. This theoretical structure is not realistic. Rather, American political parties tend to operate like a confederacy, where the state parties act autonomously and have loose connections to each other, and to the national committee.

24. The Three Faces of a Party The national party organization receives the most publicity during the national convention. Members of the party who have been selected to attend the convention, meet to nominate the presidential candidate, approve the party platform, and approve the presidential candidate’s selection of a vice- presidential candidate. This convention is held once every four years.

25. The Three Faces of a Party Each state also has a party organization. There is a state chairperson who is responsible for making the party competitive in elections at the state level. Like the national party each state holds a state convention, which endorses candidates of the party. Furthermore, a state party platform is drafted which focuses on issues at the state level of government.

26. The Three Faces of a Party The local party organization is very different in different regions of the country. In some areas there is little evidence that the party has any local organization. In other areas there is a very strong local organization that controls the local governmental process. The national party has little control over the local organization.

27. The Three Faces of a Party The partisan outcome of an election is important for a number of reasons, including the ability of the majority party to dominate committees in legislatures, decide appointments in the executive branch and set the political agenda. But given the checks and balances of the American policy making system, gaining an electoral partisan majority does not mean absolute power. Indeed, in the era of ticket splitting (where many voters vote for candidates of different parties for different offices) and divided government, majority partisan advantage is almost always tempered by the opposition.

28. Convention Delegates and Voters: How Did They Compare on the Issues in 2004?

30. Why Has the Two Party System Endured? In 2004 the United States Constitution is 217 years old. During this time there have been 108 Congresses elected and 52 presidential elections. During only 28 years under the Constitution has the U.S. not had a two-party system. Since 1856, or for the last 144 years, the U.S. has had nothing but a two-party system. There are at least five major reasons for the two-party system in the United States.

31. Why Has the Two Party System Endured? Historical foundation of the two-party system: on most major issues confronting the country there have usually been two competing groups. This duality helped to initiate a two- party system and has maintained this system through the present. Political Socialization and Party Identification: For generation after generation all that has existed is a two party system. If individuals are not exposed to anything but a two-party system, they will not likely seek change to a different type of system.

32. Why Has the Two Party System Endured? Political culture of the United States: this has been influenced by the concept of individualism, as opposed to collective initiative. Unlike many European countries which foster the collective effort and there are numerous parties, the United States political culture has served to maintain a two-party system.

33. Why Has the Two Party System Endured? Winner-take-all electoral system: this system allows the election of a candidate who has received the most votes. The political party whose candidates finish behind the winning candidate receive nothing. If a party is able to gain 19 percent of the vote nationwide, but in no single district did a candidate receive plurality of the vote, the party is not successful in getting a candidate elected. Many countries use proportional representation in elections. Such a system allows a party to receive the number of elected officials equal to the percentage of the vote the party received. If a party receives 19 percent of the vote it would then receive 19 percent of the seats in the legislature. As long as the U.S. continues to use a winner-take-all electoral system (including in the electoral college), it is highly unlikely that a minor party will be successful.

34. Why Has the Two Party System Endured? State and federal laws favoring the two parties: this occurs because the two major parties are in control of the policy- making process. As long as the Democrats and Republicans are in power at the state and national levels they will continue to pass laws which favor the two-party system and will pass laws making it difficult for new parties to develop.

35. The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Political History The 1992 presidential election serves as an excellent example of the impact a candidate who is not affiliated with one of the two major parties can have on the electoral process. Ross Perot ran as an independent candidate and received 19 percent of the total popular vote. Only two candidates, not affiliated with a major party, have received a higher percentage of the popular vote in this century (T. Roosevelt 1912; and LaFollette 1924). However Mr. Perot, like Mr. Roosevelt, and Mr. LaFollette did not win the election. In Mr. Perot’s case he did not receive any electoral votes. Nonetheless, many would contend that he impacted the election by taking votes from either Mr. Bush or Mr. Clinton. This demonstrates that candidates who are not from the two major parties are not likely to win an election, because of the reasons listed above. But their candidacies can have an impact. Furthermore, when a candidate from a third party runs for the office of president and is unsuccessful and then runs again four years later the percentage of vote the candidate receives is considerably less. Mr. Perot only received 8.5 percent of the popular vote in 1996. But candidates from minor parties can still have an impact on the political process.

36. The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Political History For example, some claim that the candidacy of Ralph Nader on the Green Party ticket hurt Democrat Al Gore’s chances of winning the presidency, particularly given how close the election was. Some asserted that Nader took votes from Gore, thus giving George W. Bush an edge.

37. The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Political History Historically there have been important minor parties in the United States. The following represent some of the more important minor parties based on a particular philosophy or ideology: –Socialist Labor Party (began 1877) –Socialist Party (began in 1901) –Communist Party (split from the Socialist Party in 1919) –Socialist Worker’s Party (began in 1938) –Libertarian Party (began in 1972) –Reform Party (began in 1996)

40. The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Political History Not all minor parties have been based on a different ideology from the major parties. A few minor parties are formed when members of one of the two major parties are dissatisfied with the leader of the major party, or the members are dissatisfied with the platform of the major party. These are usually referred to as spin-off parties. For example, the Bull-Moose Progressives were a spin-off of the Republican party. The Bull- Moose Progressives were those reform-minded Republicans who supported the candidacy of Theodore Roosevelt over that of William Howard Taft.

41. The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Political History Since 1860, no presidential candidate has been elected from a minor party. Very few members of Congress have been elected on the label of a minor party. But minor parties have had an impact in that they raise issues that the two major parties must address. These parties also provide voters with another option.

42. Mechanisms of Political Change Realignment is a process in which a substantial number of voters switch party allegiance. There have been two realigning elections in U.S. history—1896 and 1932. Realignments may result in one of two things; first, the existing dominant party may become strengthened, as was the case in in 1860. Secondly, the parties may become more evenly matched, as the election 1968 proved when Nixon was able to draw substantial numbers of southern whites from the Democratic Party. There is also a myth associated with realignments that they are predictable, occurring every 36 years. Recent elections have disproved this idea.

43. Mechanisms of Political Change The term dealignment is used to describe a reduction in long-term party loyalty. As evidence of dealignment proponents point to the growth of independent voters and the growing occurrence of split-ticket voting. However, studies show that there are actually few truly independent voters. The majority of those who refer to themselves as independents are actually leaners, meaning more often than not they consistently support one party over another. The true independents are called swing voters. These voters frequently swing from one party to another.

45. Mechanisms of Political Change Tipping is another phenomenon that can change the political landscape. Tipping occurs when the demographics of a party changes. If the group becomes dominant in a particular geographical area, the party becomes dominant for that reason alone.