1. CE01000-3 Operating Systems Lecture 8 Process Scheduling continued and an introduction to process synchronisation

2. Overview of lecture In this lecture we will be looking at : more scheduling algorithms – Priority scheduling, Round Robin scheduling, Multi-level queue Introduction to process synchronisation including: critical section problem & mutual exclusion hardware support for process synchronisation

3. Priority Scheduling A priority number (integer) is associated with each process and the CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority (some schemes use smallest integer  highest priority). Can be preemptive or nonpreemptive SJF is effectively priority scheduling where priority is the predicted next CPU burst time.

4. Priority Scheduling (Cont.) Problem = Starvation – low priority processes may never execute. Solution = Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of the process.

5. Round Robin (RR) Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum), usually 10-100 milliseconds. After this time has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the end of the ready queue. If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum is q, then each process gets 1/n of the CPU time in chunks of at most q time units at once. No process waits more than (n-1)q time units.

6. Round Robin (RR) (Cont.) Performance q large  behaves similar to FCFS q small  overhead from context switch becomes bigger - when q becomes similar in length to context switch time then no work will get done - all context switching

7. Example: RR with Time Quantum = 20 ProcessBurst Time P 1 53 P 2 17 P 3 68 P 4 24 The Gantt chart is: P1P1 P2P2 P3P3 P4P4 P1P1 P3P3 P4P4 P1P1 P3P3 P3P3 02037577797117121134154162

8. Typically, RR has higher average turnaround than SJF, but better response.

9. How a Smaller Time Quantum Increases Context Switches

10. Turnaround Time Varies With The Time Quantum

11. Multilevel Queue Ready queue is partitioned into separate queues with processes placed according to some property e.g. foreground (interactive) and background (batch) queues or system, interactive and batch queues Each queue may have its own scheduling algorithm, e.g. foreground – RR and background – FCFS

12. Multilevel Queue (Cont.) Scheduling must be done between the queues. Fixed priority scheduling; i.e., serve all from foreground then from background. But possibility of starvation. Time slice – each queue gets a certain amount of CPU time which it can schedule amongst its processes; i.e., 80% to foreground in RR; 20% to background in FCFS

13. Multilevel Feedback Queue (Cont.) A process can move between the various queues; aging can be implemented this way. Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the following parameters: number of queues scheduling algorithms for each queue method used to determine when to upgrade a process

14. Multilevel Feedback Queue (Cont.) method used to determine when to demote a process method used to determine which queue a process will enter when that process needs service

15. Example of Multilevel Feedback Queues

16. Example of Multilevel Feedback Queue Three queues: Q 0 – time quantum 8 milliseconds Q 1 – time quantum 16 milliseconds Q 2 – FCFS Scheduling A new job enters queue Q 0 which is served in FCFS order. When it gains CPU, job receives 8 milliseconds. If it does not finish in 8 milliseconds, job is moved to queue Q 1.

17. Example of Multilevel Feedback Queue (Cont.) At Q 1 job is again served FCFS order and receives 16 additional milliseconds. If it still does not complete, it is preempted and moved to queue Q 2.

18. Process Synchronization Topics: Background The Critical-Section Problem Synchronization Hardware Semaphores (a later lecture) Classical Problems of Synchronization (a later lecture)

19. Background Concurrent access to shared data may result in data inconsistency. Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to ensure the orderly execution of cooperating processes. For example 2 processes - one a producer of data which it writes to a buffer and the other a consumer of the data which it reads from the buffer

20. Background (Cont.) Suppose that the producer-consumer code has a shared variable counter, initialized to 0 and incremented each time a new item is added to the buffer and decremented when one is removed

21. Bounded-Buffer – Shared- Memory soln. Data structures: buffer for shared data - an array organised as a circular buffer in-index - where producer to put data out-index - where consumer to get data counter - keeps count of number of items in buffer n is the size of the buffer

22. Bounded-Buffer (Cont.) Producer Process repeat …. produce data item …. /* buffer full when counter = n */ while counter == n do no-op; buffer[in-index] = data item in-index = (in-index+1) modulo size-of-buffer counter = counter + 1; until false

23. Bounded-Buffer (Cont.) Consumer process repeat /* buffer empty when counter == 0 */ while counter == 0 do no-op; get next data item from buffer[out-index] out-index = out-index-1 modulo size-of-buffer counter = counter - 1; …. consume data item …. until false

24. Bounded-Buffer (Cont.) counter = counter + 1; and counter = counter - 1; must be executed atomically. Code for counter := counter + 1 may be implemented at machine level by several instructions e.g. move count,reg1 add #1,reg1 move reg1,count

25. Bounded-Buffer (Cont.) Multiprogammed execution of processes each accessing shared data means that the instructions belonging to the different processes to access the data will be interleaved in some arbitrary order. The outcome of the execution (value of data) depends on order in which accesses occur To prevent this we need to be able to ensure that only one process can access shared data at a time

26. Example interleaving P1P2 ….. move count,reg1. interrupted...….move count,reg1. interrupted add #1,reg1. move reg1,count. ….. interrupted..sub #1,reg1.move reg1,count

27. The Critical-Section Problem Assume you have N processes all competing to use some shared data - each process has a code segment, called critical section, in which the shared data is accessed. Problem – ensure that when one process is executing in its critical section, no other process is allowed to execute in its critical section

28. Critical-Section problem (Cont.) Execution must be mutually exclusive - requires synchronisation. repeat entry section // controls entry to critical section critical section exit section // manages exit from critical section remainder section // other code until false;

29. Solution to Critical-Section Problem 3 conditions need to be met to provide a solution to critical section problem 1.Mutual Exclusion. If process P i is executing in its critical section, then no other processes can be executing in their critical sections. 2.Progress. If no process is executing in its critical section and there exist some processes that wish to enter their critical section, then the making of a selection of the process that will enter the critical section next cannot be postponed indefinitely.

30. Solution to Critical-Section Problem (Cont.) 3.Bounded Waiting. A bound must exist on the number of times that other processes are allowed to enter their critical sections after a process has made a request to enter its critical section and before that request is granted.

31. Synchronization Hardware Many processors provide instructions that as part of one single instruction both test a word for a value and change that value - being a single instruction it is atomic (indivisible) e.g. Test-and-set instruction - defined below as if it were a method boolean method TestAndSet (boolean wordToBeTested) { return wordToBeTested ; // return value of word wordToBeTested = true; // set value of target word to true }

32. Mutual Exclusion with Test-and- Set Shared data: var lock: boolean (initially false) Process P i repeat while Test-and-Set (lock) do no-op; critical section lock := false; remainder section until false; However without further modification does not satisfy bounded waiting condition

33. References Operating System Concepts. Chapter 5 & 6.