Intro to Argument Appeals to Reason, Emotion, and Ethics Direct and Indirect Arguments

Appeal to Reason Uses logic and evidence to persuade an audience. Argument rests on viable claims, sound reasoning, and compelling data. May proceed inductively or deductively.

Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning proceeds from observations of particular instances and arrives at probable conclusions. Inductive reasoning relies on examining specific instances, examples, or facts in order to arrive at general conclusions. Most arguments proceed inductively.

Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning proceeds from general principles to specific conclusions. Deductive reasoning employs syllogisms an enthymemes.

Syllogisms Syllogisms consist of three parts: Major Premise: Riding toys are unsafe. Minor Premise: Scooters are riding toys. Conclusion: Scooters are unsafe.

Enthymeme An enthymeme is a shortened syllogism. It omits the major premise. It is common in arguments. Example: Scooters are unsafe because they are riding toys.

Appeals to Emotion The essence of an emotional appeal is passion. You write from passion, and expect your readers to respond with equal fervor. Make your case in specific, concrete, memorable ways that will leave an impact on the reader. Writing will be more colorful than in less emotional circumstances. May have a higher proportion of vivid examples, narratives, anecdotes, character sketches, analogies, and figures of speech. Speaker/writer must control his or her tone effectively.

Appeals to Ethics Ethical appeals appeal to the audience’s understanding of right or wrong. Ethical appeals often rely on the audience’s perception of the speaker as a person of integrity.

Direct Arguments Use some variation of classical arrangement: Introduction Background Thesis/Warrant/Proposition/Claim Supporting Arguments Refutation of Counter Arguments Conclusion

Arrangement (from Cicero) Exordium: Introduction. The writer gains the audience’s attention. Narratio: Background information. The writer gives the facts of the case. Propositio: The proposition. The writer presents his or her thesis, or main idea. Confirmatio: Arguments supporting the proposition. The writer gives evidence to support his or her thesis or main idea. Refutatio: The anticipation and refutation of counter- arguments. The writer answers in advance any objections that opponents may raise. Peroratio: Conclusion. The writer summarizes the chief arguments, calls for a specific response, and makes a final emotional appeal.

Indirect Arguments Indirect arguments make their points through satire, irony, an imagined character whose actions or life story illustrate a point, or some other imaginative approach.