Gestures, body parts and numbers: Greater Awyu numerals in typological perspective Lourens de Vries (VU University Amsterdam) With thanks to the grants of the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO, PR-08-38) and the Australian Research Council (ARC, DP )

Introduction Context of my research: understanding the nature of human language by inductive generalizations on well-researched and well-described languages, a research tradition in linguistic typology that combines in-depth descriptions of individual languages with inductive generalizations on (samples of) high quality reference grammars; typological databases: World Atlas of Linguistic Structures (Max Planck, WALS, e.g. for numerals Partners and network: this research tradition of linguistic typology/language description (fieldwork) is strong in Nijmegen (Max Planck), Leipzig (Max Planck, B. Comrie), Cairns (JCU, R.M.W. Dixon & S. Aikhenvald), Canberra (N. Evans); within VU: Leo Wetzels (Amazonian languages linked to general phonological theory), Leiden University(Marian Klamer, Maarten Mous) Theoretical framework: e.g. Dixon 2010, 2012, Basic Linguistic Theory, I,II,II, Oxford University Press

Typological Introduction Comrie, Bernard. 2005a. ‘Endangered numeral systems’. In Jan Wohlgemuth and Tyko Dirksmeyer (eds.): Bedrohte Vielfalt: Aspekte des Sprach(en)tods [Endangered diversity: Aspects of language death], 203–230. Berlin: Weißensee Verlag. Comrie, Bernard. 2005b. ‘Numeral bases’. In Martin Haspelmath, Matthew Dryer, David Gil, and Bernard Comrie (eds.), The world atlas of language structures, 530–533. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press. (Electronic version: – A. Restricted systems: no or less than five numerals, with little internal structure (Piraha: no numerals, Australian languages: up to five numerals (1-5) – B. Simple systems with addition only: 1, 2, 3(=2+1), 4=2+2, e.g. Kombai (de Vries 1993) – C. Complex systems with addition, and multiplication applied to a base: – For base b: (n x b) + m (where m < b) – Bases found: 5, 6, 8, 12, 10, 20, 32, 60 (

Typological Introduction – Hypotheses (Comrie 2005a/b/): – (1)Typology of numeral systems reflects evolution from restricted systems, via simple systems to complex systems – (2) Words for numeral have two sources: transactional-commercial and the human body – Example commercial-transactional origin: Wambon (Drabbe 1959, Papua): omae=rattan string =5 because Wambon people used to tie 5 kaurishells (=indigenous money) to a rattan string. – English: score=20=notch carved in wood representing twenty sheep or glasses of beer in a tavern Psalm 90: 1 King James: The days of our years are threescore years and ten; and if by reason of strength they be fourscore years, yet is their strength labor and sorrow; for it is soon cut off, and we fly away.

Typological Introduction Numeral systems have a high degree of borrowability; many speech communities have multiple numeral systems; Numeral systems of minority language groups disappear rather quickly when such groups become integrated in nation-states; often the first system to be affected by contact with national languages or languages of wider communication, even when the rest of the language is vital and unendangered; Cultural and historical contexts crucial to understand numeral systems: Context of contact: With introduction of money systems of nation-states numerals of nation- state languages start to replace indigenous numeral systems (e.g. Malay decimal system replacing numeral systems of minority groups in Asia and Melanesia) Cultural contexts of usage: may explain choice of bases: e.g. senary systems of southern Papua

Typological Introduction – Arammba, Wara, Kanum (Evans 2010, Doehler 2011) – Counting ceremonies in context of yam feasts: senary systems in Trans Fly area of New Guinea, southern Papuan languages, ritualistic senary systems – Christian Doelhler (2011): “ Kómnzo or Wára has a senary numeral system whose numbers above five have a power of six. The senary counting system is almost exclusively used for counting yam tubers, which are the staple diet of the people. exchange of yams is of great importance for feasts and exchange marriages. Outside of this special domain, people almost never count in Kómnzo. “ – When the yam counting takes place, two men pick up three tubers each and move them from one pile to the newly started pile. With each time the move 6 yams and each time, they call out the number terms from 1 to 6.

Typological Introduction – Arammba senary number terms (Evans 2010: 62) simple terms for the first six powers of six – nimbo6 =6 1 – fete36 =6 2 – tarumba216= 6 3 – ndamno1,296=6 4 – wermeke7,7766=6 5 – wi46, 656=6 6

Typological Introduction – Kanum (southern Papuan): complex senary numbers, Evans 2010: 61) (Comrie type C); example Kanum expresses number 200 like this: – Swabraptaeynaoaemyntamnao – fivethirtysixtwothreesix – (5 x6 2 ) + 2 +(3 x 6)

Map 1. Indonesia

Asmat- Kamoro Greater Awyu Ok- Oksapmin Marind Map 2. Southwest New Guinea (courtesy of Jaap Fokkema)

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam GREATER AWYU FAMILY De Vries, Wester and van den Heuvel (2012) 11 AGH PSA YEN SHI AWYU DUMUT MAN YWB DWB NDEIRAM BECKING-DAWIAWYU-DUMUT GREATER AWYU KOM TYN WNG KOR TSA KYD

Pictures: J. J. Veldhuizen 1986

Extended body part tally systems With the exception of the Awyu subgroup that has hands-and- feet systems with base 5 and base 20, all languages of the Greater Awyu family have extended body-part tally systems that are not based on distinctions between base and derived numbers Closed systems: 23, 25, 27 as highest number Gestures as distinctive lexical features Unique to central New Guinea, with some extensions in lowlands (Laycock 1975) and on Torres Straits islands and in southeastern Australia (Lean 1992)

Korowai numerals Source: van Enk & de Vries 1997, The Korowai of Irian Jaya,. Their language in its cultural context. Oxford University Press 1senan little finger 2senanafül ring finger 3pinggu(lu)p middle finger 4 wayafül index finger 5wayo thumb 6gédun wrist 7 lafol lower arm 8bonggup elbow 9labul upper arm 10main shoulder 11 khomofekholol neck 12khotokhal ear 13khabéan head

14mén-khotokhal ear on the other side 15mén-khomofekhololneck on the other side 16mé-main the other shoulder 17mén-tabul the other upper arm 18mé-mbonggup the other elbow 19mén-tafol the other lower arm 20mé-nggédun the other wrist 21mé-wayo the other thumb 22mé-wayafül the other index finger 23mén-pinggu(lu)p the other middle finger 24mén-senanafül the other ring finger 25mén-senan the other little finger

Syntactic integration of body part numeral nouns A lot of diversity in syntactic integration of body part nouns in Greater Awyu languages: Awyu subgroup: Aghu employs verbalization for integrating its number system in the clausal morphosyntax Languages of the two other Awyu-Dumut subgroups, Dumut and Ndeiram, all use the same comitative suffix when a body-part is used as numeral modifier in noun phrases (pig wrist-with= six pigs). Languages of the Becking-Dawi branch use the noun anop ‘amount’ in a compounding strategy. Source: Lourens de Vries, Numerals in Papuan languages of the Greater Awyu family. In Gerrit Dimmendaal and Anne Storch (eds), Number: Constructions and Semantics. Case studies from Africa, India, Amazonia & Oceania”, Studies in Language Companion Series. Amsterdam: John Benjamins

Syntactic integration of body part numeral nouns When these body-part nouns are used as modifying numerals in Korowai noun phrases, the noun anop 'amount' obligatorily forms a compound noun with the body-part nouns: pinggup middle.finger “three” gol pinggu-anop pig middle.finger-amount “three pigs” gol wayafül-anop pig index.finger-amount “four pigs”

The element anop cannot be added to senan 'little finger/one' and senanafül 'ring finger/two' to form modifying numerals: *gol senan-anop pig one-amount “one pig” Instead, lidop 'one' and pol 'two' are used as modifiers in noun phrases: gol lidop pig one “one pig” gol pol pig two “two pigs”

Lidop and pol are the only two members of an elementary non body-part based system: restricted system with two numerals, one and two The word pol 'a pair/two' is used in combination with a word meaning 'just' to denote the concept of 'few': golpol-tanukh pigpair-just “(a) few pigs” The extended body part tally system (up and down the arms) is an additional numeral system later introduced, as part of an areal spreading of extended body part systems from a center in the Ok region of New Guinea (Harald Hammarström, Max Planck, 2015 (in prep.)

Other Greater Awyu languages LanguageHighest numberTurning point Kombai23 head (12) Mandobo23 head (12) Korowai25 head (13) Digul Wambon27nose (14) Yonggom Wambon27nose (14)

Use of the numeral system – Stasch (2001: 343) writes: ‘..in practice, precise enumeration is not usually carried out for quantities approaching or exceeding ten (main ‘shoulder’). Instead, ‘ten” is used as default term for “lots”. – There are variations in the use of the body-parts for counting. Some speakers skip the ear in which case khabéan 'head' represents the number 'twelve'. – Matching of counted objects with body parts – Not much counting going on: death compensation and bride price payments

Stasch (2001: 511) remarks: “…Korowai almost always enumerate days or other objects by gesturally and verbally counting off the body-part numerals to reach a total quantity, even when that total quantity is known or instantly perceptible..”. This is the background of the fact that I always saw Korowai speakers make the accompanying gesture whenever they used these compounds for the days of the week as adverbials in sentences

Days of the Week The body-part/number noun stems form compound nouns with the noun stem tefül 'day' to indicate the days of the week. These concepts were introduced into Korowai life by missionaries in the early 1980s. They used the Indonesian names of the days and months but Korowai speakers chose to refer to these days with the body-part number system: senan-tefül little.finger-day “Monday” senanafü-tefül ring.finger-day “Tuesday”

From shells and teeth to Indonesian rupiah Groen (1983: 53) describes a typical bride price among the Kombai around Wanggemalo: 4 strings of small kauri-shells 1 string of big shells 2 big shells 1 string of dog teeth 2 stone axes 1 pig. After adoption of Indonesian money, bridal payments were done in Indonesian rupiah and they ranged between in the 1990s Rph and Rph

Korowai bridal payment: 2 pigteeth bracelets, 1 pig Picture Johannes Veldhuizen 1987

Loss of body part system: first ‘other side arm’ numerals, then ‘arm’ numerals, finally ‘hand’ numerals When Dutch and later Indonesian money entered Greater Awyu communities, between roughly 1940 (in coastal communities) and 2000 (foothills), high numbers such as 100, 1500, 1000, , and were needed. Indonesian numerals were quickly borrowed by Greater Awyu languages and initially used alongside indigenous systems. Take the following passage from the Kombai translation of the Gospel of Mark (chapter 8 verse 19), translated by Kombai bilingual pastor Geyo Weremba: Nu roti ambalo-khu mofena lefa Ibreadthumb-withthattake.SS famo lima ribu khof-o ri.... cut.SSfivethousandman-CONNfor '...I took the five pieces of bread and cut bread for five thousand men..' In (21) both the body-part number 'thumb/five' and the Indonesian number lima 'five' are used. In Kombai, when multiples of the Indonesian borrowed numerals ratus 'hundred', ribu 'thousand' and juta 'million' are used, the phrase tends to use Indonesian numerals.

Hands-and-feet systems Unlike body part tally systems (up and down the arms) that occur in just one small part of the world (center of New Guinea) the other very frequent numeral system of New Guinea occurs also in other parts of the world: hands-and-feet systems Hands-and-feet systems of New Guinea: Different set of gestures Body part based base numbers for 5, 10 and 20 Open ended system of type C (complex systems)

Inanwatan, South Bird’s Head family (source: de Vries 2004, A short grammar of Inanwatan, Australian National University Press) 1mútero/nagiáre/naguáre (bending the little finger) 2éri-wo (bending the ring finger) two-F 3éri-naguáre (bending the middle finger) two-one 4éri-eri-dáre (bending the index finger) two-two-? 5néwo-gáago (clenching left fist) hand-side 6néwo-gáagonagiáre (bending the right little finger) hand-sideone 7néwo-gáagoéridare (bending right ring finger) hand-sidetwo 8néwo-gáagoéri-naguare (bending right middle finger) 9néwo-gáagoéri-éri-dare (bending right index finger) hand-sidetwo-two 10néwo-wa sugéri (clapping two hands in front of the breast) hand-PLboth 11néwo-wasugérimútero (touching left little toe) hand-PLbothone 15néwo-wasugérinéwo-gáago (touching left big toe) hand-PLbothhand-side 16néwo-wasugérinéwo-gáago nagiáre (tou­ching right little toe) hand-PLbothhand-side one

Inanwatan, South Bird’s Head family 20nágia-ga íragiro one-POSSbody 21nágia-ga íragiromútero one-POSSbodyone 30nágia-ga íragiro néwo-wasugéri one-POSSbodyhand-PLboth 40eridá-ga iragíro two-POSSbody 100néwo-gáagua-ga íragíro hand-side-POSSbody 100natído-rago bundle.of.hundred.sticks-one 200natído éri-wo bundle.of.hundred.stickstwo-F 1000nipído-rago bundle.of.ten.natído-one 2000nipído éri-wo bundle.of.ten.natídotwo-F

Multimodal lexicon of spoken Greater Awyu languages: Gestures have to be specified in the lexicon, e.g. Korowai Korowai: gedun 1. wrist 2. six (touch inside of wrist with index and middle finger) Gender-specific counting systems: Some Papuan languages: penis, testicles (Yupna) and breasts (Alamblak, Bruce 1984) had numeral meanings and men and women accordingly have separate numeral words. The Yupna men of the Finisterre mountains of Papua New Guinea included navel (30), left testicle (31), right testicle (32) and penis (33) in their counting system (Wassmann 1995 ) Transparant relation with human body in both hands-and-feet systems and body part tally systems of New Guinea Innovative step: instead of switching to other hand after ‘five’ /hand/thumb in body part tally systems people moved to wrists, underarm, and so on Conclusion and discussion