1 Psychology 320: Psychology of Gender and Sex Differences February 12 Lecture 47

2 Office Hour Invitations February 14, 11:30-2:30, Kenny

3 The peer mentors (Derek, Natalie) will hold a tutorial on Friday (February 14): When? 5:00-6:00 Where? Kenny 2510 Reminder

A little R&R …. (Review and Reflect) 5

6 From last class ….

Sex Importance of Earnings Pay Expectations Major and Konar’s (1984) Model of Sex Differences in Salary Expectations Career Path Factors Job Input Factors Social Comparison Standards 7

8 Careers and Work 1. What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace?

9 By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 1. define the terms: access discrimination, treatment discrimination, the glass ceiling, and the glass escalator. 2. generate examples of access discrimination and treatment discrimination. 3. review statistics regarding sex disparities in pay in Canada. 4. discuss supply-side theory.

10 What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace? There are two forms of discrimination that males and females encounter in the workplace.

11 1. Access discrimination:  Occurs when hiring decisions are made (e.g., who is hired, what position s/he is offered).  More likely to occur when job qualifications are ambiguous.  Example: Rent-A-Center, 2002.

12 2. Treatment discrimination:  Occurs after hiring decisions have been made (e.g., salary, opportunities for promotion, opportunities for professional development, working conditions).  Characterized by the “glass ceiling” and “glass escalator.”  Substantial research has examined one form of treatment discrimination—the pay disparity between females and males.

MalesFemalesPercentage Gap Overall40,13136,40536,53629,74429,21129, No high school36,60332,02230,47823,99322,83522, High School38,92934,22732,80427,79326,45125, Non-University Post-Secondary Certificate 41,78937,87136,68830,69529,06227, University Degree 44,65242,21945,05437,68437,06636, Disparity in Mean Pay by Sex and Education Level, (Statistics Canada, 2007) 13

DisciplineMalesFemales Education35,55233,877 Arts34,52929,524 Humanities36,42033,214 Social Sciences41,68435,133 Commerce47,96740,191 Life Sciences36,35433,076 Engineering52,06744,867 Health46,90742,841 Math, Computer Sciences, Physical Sciences 49,534 41,301 Disparity in Mean Pay by Sex and Area of Study (Statistics Canada, 2007) 14

Weekly Earnings by Sex (US Department of Labor, 2006, 2010) 15

Evidence of Treatment Discrimination at UBC (UBC Faculty Focus, 2009) With respect to starting salary, female faculty are paid an average of $1,667 less than male faculty. With respect to yearly salary, female faculty are paid an average of $14,827 less than male faculty. Over a 35-year career, the average female professor makes $267,000 less than her male counterpart. Average award amounts are 10% lower for female faculty than male faculty. 13% of female faculty achieve the rank of full professor, whereas 46% of male faculty achieve the rank of full professor. Female faculty achieve the rank of full professor after an average of 13 years, Male faculty achieve the rank of full professor after an average of 10 years. Although 44% of faculty are female, only 17% of heads and directors are female. 16

CountryWomen’s % of Men’s Earnings CountryWomen’s % of Men’s Earnings Canada72.0Greece83.8 United Kingdom75.7Italy85.7 United States77.9Spain86.8 Austria78.9France89.2 Netherlands78.9Denmark89.6 Ireland80.2Belgium92.7 Germany80.6Portugal94.1 Percent of Men’s Wages Earned by Women in Various Countries (International Labor Office, 2004; Statistics Canada, 2012; US Department of Labor, 2003) 17

18  Notably, the sex-related pay disparity is smaller among ethnic minorities (exception: Asians), younger (i.e., ) populations, and those who are entering the workforce.

19 Median Weekly Earnings by Sex and Ethnicity (US Department of Labor, 2010)

20 Institute for Women’s Policy Research (2013)

21  Two theories have been proposed to account for the pay disparity between females and males:

22 (a) Supply-Side Theory (Human Capital Theory) Maintains that the characteristics of males and females account for the pay disparity. Examples of characteristics of males and females (i.e., “supply-side characteristics”) that may contribute to the pay disparity:

23 Number of hours worked. Occupational experience. Occupational choice: However, within occupations females are paid less than males. Educational background: No longer viable.

24 Negotiation of salary: Females are less likely than males to engage in salary negotiation (Babcock & Laschever, 2003; Walters et al., 1998).  Gerhart and Rynes (1991) found that males’ negotiations led to a 4.3% yearly salary increase, whereas females’ negotiations led to a 2.7% yearly salary increase:

Salary (Thousands of Dollars) Projected Salary of a Male and Female Over the Ages of 25 to 65 with a 4.3% and 2.7% Salary Increase Per Year, Respectively Age Accumulation of disadvantage 25

26 By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 1. define the terms: access discrimination, treatment discrimination, the glass ceiling, and the glass escalator. 2. generate examples of access discrimination and treatment discrimination. 3. review statistics regarding sex disparities in pay in Canada. 4. discuss supply-side theory.